Satavahanas

The Satavahanas were the first large kingdom of the Deccan whose rulers are known by name from their own inscriptions and coins. At their height their records reached from the western Deccan to the mouth of the Krishna. For the Telugu country they matter mainly through their later kings.¹²³⁴⁵ Their inscriptions and lead coins are found in the Krishna valley and the Godavari delta.¹²³⁴⁵ In their reigns the Buddhist stupa (relic mound) of Amaravati was enlarged.¹²³⁴⁵

About the sources. Almost everything about the dynasty except its name has been disputed. Scholars disagree on where it came from, when it began and how long it lasted. They also disagree on where its capitals were and when it first ruled the lower Krishna. This page sets out what the sources in the site’s library say, from James Fergusson in 1868 to D. C. Sircar in 1959. Later research is summarised in The Age of the Satavahanas (1999), which has not been consulted page by page here.

Name and origins

The Puranas, Sanskrit compilations of legend and genealogy, list these kings as the Andhras. Nineteenth-century writers often called them Andhrabhrityas.²⁶ The family name Satavahana is fixed by a label at Nanaghat, near Pune, carved for a statue of the founder: “Raya Simuka Satavahano”.⁷ E. J. Rapson explained Satavahana as the name of the clan to which the ruling family belonged.⁸

Several kings took the throne-name Satakarni and told themselves apart by metronymics, names taken from their mothers’ families, such as Gautamiputra and Vasishthiputra.⁷ The later Ikshvaku kings of the Krishna valley copied this habit.⁹ The family name itself is rare in inscriptions.¹⁰ One of the few to use it is the record of a “king of the Satavahanas” at Myakadoni in Ballari (then Bellary) district.¹⁰

The term Andhrabhritya (“servants of the Andhras”) has been read in different ways. Burgess noted that the Matsya Purana speaks of “seven other Andhra kings of the race of their servants”.¹ He noted too that the Vayu Purana does not support a separate dynasty.¹ Rapson thought the term originally belonged to that later family alone, probably the Chutus of the western Deccan.¹¹ Walter Elliot instead imagined a revolution under Gautamiputra Satakarni, which would have put a “servant” line on the throne of the “true” Andhras.¹²

Writers also disagree about where the Andhras began. Rapson pointed to a mention of the Andhras in the Aitareya Brahmana, among tribes on the fringe of Aryan civilisation.⁸¹³ He placed their home then, as later, in the Telugu country between the Krishna and the Godavari.⁸¹³ Vincent Smith likewise described them in about 300 BCE as a Dravidian people in the Godavari and Krishna deltas.¹⁴ Smith also cited P. T. Srinivas Iyengar’s contrary argument (1913) that the Andhras spoke Prakrit and that their rule spread from west to east.¹⁵

Sewell made them chiefs of a tribe near the Vindhya hills.¹⁶ Sircar argued that the Andhra people first lived in the northern Deccan and that the early Satavahanas ruled lands north of the Krishna.² Elliot imagined a migration down the east coast, by way of the Chilka lake, to a capital on the Krishna above Amaravati.¹⁷

Asoka’s Rock Edict XIII names the Andhras in the 3rd century BCE. Sewell read it as placing them beyond Asoka’s borders. Rapson took them to be semi-independent. Sircar’s translation of the Erragudi copy lists them among the peoples within the Mauryan dominions.¹⁶¹³¹⁸ See Mauryas.

The evidence

Four kinds of evidence survive:

• Inscriptions in Prakrit, mostly in caves of the western Deccan (Nanaghat, Nasik, Karle, Kanheri) and, for the later kings, in the Krishna and Godavari country and at Myakadoni. They are dated only in regnal years.¹²
• Coins, mostly of lead, with some of copper and of potin (a copper alloy), and a few of silver.¹⁹²⁰²¹
• Classical writers. Pliny credited a people he called the Andarae, whom James Burgess took to be the Andhras, with thirty fortified towns and a large army. Ptolemy, in the 2nd century, named Paithana on the upper Godavari as the capital of “Siri Polemaios”, generally taken to be a King Pulumavi.¹²²
• The Puranic king-lists. The Matsya Purana gives 29 kings and 460 years, and the Vishnu, Vayu and Bhagavata give 30 kings and 456 years.²³

Territory in the Telugu country

The Krishna valley

Most of the Andhra evidence comes from the lower Krishna. An inscription dated in the reign of Vasishthiputra Pulumavi was found at the Amaravati stupa.⁵ Another, of Gautamiputra Yajna Satakarni, was found on the sea-shore south of the Krishna near the village of Chinna in Kistna district.²⁴ Lead coins of several kings came from Gudivada and from Amaravati, including the stupa mound itself, locally called Dipaldinne.^2526272829

Sewell described the political picture about the beginning of the Christian era.³⁰ He gave the Andhra king the Godavari and Krishna tracts, with parts of Nellore, Kadapa (then Cuddapah) and Kurnool.³⁰

Sircar disagreed about the date. He edited an inscription from Velpuru in Sattenapalle taluk of a Maharaja of the Aira family, in letters of about Pulumavi’s time. From it he argued that the Airas held the Krishna–Guntur region until Pulumavi conquered it.³¹³²²

The Godavari delta

Kodavali is a village about nine miles north-west of Pithapuram.⁴³³ On a hill beyond it, a short inscription of Vasishthiputra Chandasati is cut into the wall of a rock-cut well.⁴³³ The well stands beside the brick remains of what looked like a Buddhist stupa.⁴³³ Sewell took the inscription to show Andhra rule there by about 208 CE.¹⁶

Lead coins attributed to the dynasty were found at Chittala in the Yernagudem taluk of Godavari district.³⁴ Rapson grouped the coins of Andhradesa, the Krishna and Godavari districts, as a distinct regional currency.³⁵ Elliot noted that the two branches of the Godavari delta are called the Gautami and the Vasishthi.³⁶²¹ These are the same names as the queens remembered in the kings’ metronymics.³⁶²¹

Rayalaseema and the south

In Rayalaseema the only Satavahana inscription in these sources is a rock inscription at Myakadoni in Adoni taluk. It is dated in the eighth year of a King Pulumavi. It names a district (janapada) called Satavahani-hara. Its editor, V. S. Sukthankar, thought that district covered much of Ballari.³⁷³⁸ He thought the rock fixed a point south of the Krishna where Satavahana rule reached.³⁷³⁸

The Bellary gazetteer of 1904 cited an inscription of a Haritiputra Satakarni and a lead coin naming Pulumayi, both from neighbouring parts of Mysore.³⁹ It took them as proof that the Andhras ruled the district in the 2nd century CE.³⁹ Rapson described lead coins of a horse type from Bathapalli in Anantapur and from Kadapa. He tentatively assigned them to a Haritiputra of the Chutu family.⁴⁰⁴¹ Lead coins with a ship were picked up on the Coromandel coast between Madras and Cuddalore.⁴⁰⁴²

Telangana

The Imperial Gazetteer of Hyderabad (1909) described the Andhras extending their rule from the Krishna delta to Nasik, and named Paithan, outside the Telugu country, as Pulumayi’s capital.⁴³ The older sources used for this page record no Satavahana inscription or coin find from the Telangana districts. Elliot remarked in 1886 that most of the old Andhra dominion lay in the Nizam’s territory, where opportunities for coin research were few.²¹

Later finds changed this picture. At Kotilingala on the Godavari, in Karimnagar district, a fair number of coins of Simuka were found, with coins of Satakarni I and of a king Satavahana.⁴⁴ They are of cheap metal, so Ajay Mitra Shastri argued that they were used where they were found.⁴⁴ He took them as proof that part of present Andhra Pradesh belonged to the dynasty from the start.⁴⁴ A silver portrait coin of Vasishthiputra Sivasri Pulumavi came from the excavation at Dhulikatta.⁴⁵ Coins of local kings such as Samagopa were found at the same sites.⁴⁶ Shastri and Rachna Lodaya date them before the Satavahanas.⁴⁷⁴⁶

Capitals

The sources disagree about where the kings lived. Burgess reported a tradition that the first capital was Srikakulam on the Krishna, founded by a legendary emperor Sumati (perhaps Simuka). In this tradition the seat later moved to Dhanyakataka (Dharanikota), next to Amaravati. He added that either the royal seat moved often or princes governed separate viceroyalties.¹²²

The Godavari gazetteer repeated this sequence.⁴⁸ Smith noted that the river had cut away the old site at Srikakulam.¹⁵ The 1910 revision of Fergusson’s History of Indian Architecture put the capital at Dhanyakataka, with a second capital later at Paithan.⁴⁹

Sewell made Kolhapur the capital of Gautamiputra and Paithan that of Pulumavi in his king-list.⁵⁰⁵¹ In another passage he wrote that Gautamiputra lived at Dhanyakataka while the heir ruled the west from Paithan.⁵⁰⁵¹ No Satavahana inscription from Dharanikota itself is known in these sources, but an Amaravati donor of the period calls himself a man “of Dhamnakataka”.⁵²

Rulers

The reign chart follows Sewell. Rapson found that the Puranas gave the first three kings, Simuka, Krishna and Sri Satakarni, correctly when checked against the inscriptions. Between the early and the later inscriptions he saw a long “dark period” known only from the Puranic lists.⁵³⁵⁴⁵⁵

The kings attested in the Telugu country are all late:

• Vasishthiputra Pulumavi: the Amaravati inscription and lead coins of Andhradesa.⁵⁵⁶
• Siva Sri Satakarni and Chandra Sri (Chandra Sati): lead coins of Andhradesa, and for Chandra Sati the Kodavali inscription.⁵⁷³³
• Yajna Sri Satakarni: the Chinna inscription and coins of both Andhra fabrics.⁵⁸⁵⁹
• A King Pulumavi at Myakadoni, whose identity is disputed.¹⁰⁶⁰
• Sri Sivamaka Sada, named in a fragment at Amaravati, who may not have been a Satavahana.⁶¹³²
• Sri Rudra Satakarni and Sri Krishna II, known only from coins and absent from the Puranas.^59622040

Rapson thought the empire divided after Yajna Sri. The Satavahana line kept the eastern provinces, while another family of Satakarnis, the Chutus, held the west and south.⁵⁹⁶² Earlier kings are covered on the pages for Simuka, Sri Satakarni and Gautamiputra Satakarni.

How the kingdom was governed

The Andhra records say little about government, and most of what is known comes from the western caves. The Myakadoni inscription is the fullest Andhra example. It names the district of Satavahani-hara as belonging to a great general (mahasenapati) called Skandanaga. The village of Vepuraka belonged to a captain (gumika) called Kumaradatta.³⁸

Sukthankar took hara here to mean a district or kingdom, the rattha of a later Pallava grant.³⁸ He guessed that these officers held their lands somewhat like jagirs (land grants).³⁸

At Kodavali the donor was an amacha (Sanskrit amatya), a minister or officer.⁶³⁶⁰ Krishna Sastri named him Sasa of Khaddavali, the old name of Kodavali, while Sircar read the name as Satyamitra.⁶³⁶⁰ An Amaravati fragment names a superintendent of the water establishment (paniyagharika) of King Sri Sivamaka Sada.⁶¹ Hultzsch offered this reading only with diffidence (with doubt).⁶¹

The western records show the same offices at work. Gautamiputra sent his orders on land grants to the amacha in charge of Govardhana, the Nasik district.⁶⁴ Other officials registered and kept the order.⁶⁴ Rapson called these districts aharas.⁶⁵⁶⁶⁶⁷ He identified the Maharathis and Mahabhojas as high officers of state, probably viceroys, often related to the royal family.⁶⁵⁶⁶⁶⁷ Smith, summarising D. R. Bhandarkar, ranked the Maharathis, Mahabhojas and Mahasenapatis as feudatories in charge of districts, above the amatyas, mahamatras and treasury officers.⁶⁸

Taxes and revenue

None of the Satavahana inscriptions from the Telugu country in these sources is a royal grant. They record private gifts: the Chinna and Kodavali gifts, the Amaravati donations, and the Myakadoni reservoir dug by a householder.⁶⁹³⁷¹⁰ The terms of royal grants are known from Nasik. There Gautamiputra gave a field to Buddhist monks with immunities (freedom from dues and interference).⁶⁴ It was not to be entered or touched by royal officers, not to be dug for salt, and not to be interfered with by the district police.⁶⁴

His mother’s inscription praises him as a king who levied taxes only “in conformity to justice”.⁷⁰⁷¹ Senart understood the phrase to mean that the taxes were also spent on just purposes.⁷⁰⁷¹

Religious endowments were also invested with guilds at interest.⁷² One, made under the satrap Nahapana before Gautamiputra’s conquest, earned one per cent a month to clothe the monks.⁷² Yajna Sri endowed monks at Kanheri with money at interest and the revenue of a field.⁶⁹

Law and order

The sources say almost nothing about courts or punishment. The Nasik immunities show that district police existed, since they were barred from the granted field.⁶⁴ Gautamiputra was praised as one who “stopped the contamination of the four varnas”, that is, as an upholder of caste rules.⁷⁰⁷³ Smith noted that permanent endowments were publicly proclaimed and recorded with a town assembly (nigama-sabha).⁷⁴

Army

Pliny credited the Andhras with 100,000 infantry, 2,000 cavalry and 1,000 elephants.¹ Sewell applied the figures to the Andhra king of the 1st century CE. Smith thought they came from Megasthenes and described the Andhra nation of about 300 BCE.⁵¹¹⁴¹⁵

Burgess read the Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela as describing Satakarni “protecting the west” with a numerous army.¹ Jayaswal and Banerji later read it as Kharavela sending his army west “disregarding Satakarni”.⁷⁵ Gautamiputra issued his Nasik order “from the camp of victory of the Vejayanti army”.⁶⁴ Rapson took this to be the army in rainy-season quarters at Banavasi.⁷⁶

In the Telugu country a great general held the Myakadoni district.³⁸ At Amaravati one of the earliest inscriptions, in letters of Mauryan type, records a pillar given by a general named Mudakutala.⁷⁷ Dharanikota was walled by a massive embankment about 650 yards a side.²⁸ Gudivada too had a fort.²⁵

Economy and trade

The Andhra coast lay on the sea route to the West. The Periplus, a 1st-century merchant’s guide, describes Masalia, a coast “stretching a great way” where “a great quantity of muslins is made”.⁷⁸ Its translator W. H. Schoff identified Masalia with Machilipatnam (then Masulipatam) and called it “the greatest market of the Andhra kingdom”.⁷⁹

Ptolemy lists on this coast the mouth of the river Maisolos and the marts of Kontakossyla, Koddoura and Allosygne.⁸⁰ He also lists a point of departure for ships sailing to the land he called Khryse.⁸⁰ His translator J. W. McCrindle placed Koddoura at Gudur near Machilipatnam, and noted that Yule had put Kontakossyla near Kondapalle.⁸¹ Scholars disagreed whether the Maisolos was the Krishna or the Godavari.⁸⁰⁷⁹ Vogel identified an emporium called Kantakasela, named in a Nagarjunakonda inscription, with Ptolemy’s Kontakossyla.⁸²⁸³

Roman coins were plentiful on the Coromandel coast, and Rapson saw in them evidence of the sea trade.⁸⁴ A pot of Roman gold coins, mostly of Trajan and Hadrian, was found near Nellore in the 1780s.⁸⁵

Lead coins showing a two-masted ship were found at Gudivada.²⁵ Rapson assigned the Coromandel ship coins to Pulumavi, and Smith referred them to Yajna Sri.⁸⁴⁸⁶ At Gudivada Robert Sewell also found beads of crystal, glass, amber and garnet, and pots three or four feet across at the mouth.²⁵ He concluded that the people were skilled lapidaries (gem-cutters).²⁵

Guilds appear early. At Bhattiprolu one relic casket lists the members of a negama, and another the members of a committee (goṭhi).⁸⁷⁸⁸ In the western caves guilds of weavers, potters, oil-pressers and others took deposits at interest, as Smith summarised.⁶⁸⁷⁴ Water works also appear: the Myakadoni reservoir, and the rock-cut wells beside the Kodavali mound.³⁸³³

Coins

Elliot described the Andhra coinage as mainly of lead, with some copper and alloy pieces and, in his day, none of gold or silver. He took about thirty-five grains as the unit.²¹⁸⁹

Rapson divided the lead coins of Andhradesa into two fabrics.^35561990 Fabric A has a stupa (chaitya) on one side and the “Ujjain symbol” on the other.^35561990 On Fabric B a lion was followed by a horse and, from Yajna Sri’s reign, an elephant.^35561990 Coins of the two fabrics are often found together, as at Gudivada, so Rapson took them to be currencies of neighbouring districts.³⁵

Rapson’s catalogue records Andhra coins from Gudivada, from Amaravati and the Dipaldinne mound, from elsewhere in Krishna district and from Chittala in Godavari district.^349192932627 He also quotes Elliot on a hoard found in 1826 at Magalli, three or four miles from Nandigama. Floods of the Muneru river had exposed pots holding about 105 pounds of lead coins, mostly of the elephant type.⁹⁴

Alexander Rea described seventy-two lead coins from Gudivada, with stupa, horse, lion, ship and elephant designs.⁹⁵⁹⁶ At Nagarjunakonda A. H. Longhurst found lead ore and an earthenware coin die in a monastery cell. He concluded that the monks minted coins.⁹⁷⁹⁸

Outside the Telugu country, Rapson attributed coins of Malwa type inscribed “Rano Siri-Satasa” to Sri Satakarni, about 150 BCE.⁹⁹¹⁰⁰ He described silver coins with Yajna Sri’s head as the only known coin-portrait of an Andhra king.¹⁰¹ See Yajna Sri Satakarni.

Social life

The Amaravati inscriptions name the donors and their families. They include householders (gahapati), merchants, a goldsmith, a perfume-dealer and a man Burgess called “the Tamil Kanha”.^102103104105 One donor, Vidhika, is described by a word that Burgess translated as leather-worker, with a query.¹⁰⁶ Childers thought it meant a smith or carpenter.¹⁰⁶

Gifts were usually made “with” a wide family.¹⁰³ The wife of the householder Sidhatha, for example, gave a lamp pillar with her daughters, sons, mother, brothers and the daughter-in-law of her house.¹⁰³

Women gave in their own names.^10210752106 The wife of the merchant Nagatisa gave with her sons.^10210752106 The merchant’s wife Sidhi came from Vijayapura, and the female ascetic Sagharakhita gave with her daughters.^10210752106 Burgess remarked that women appear in the sculptures “among his most ardent votaries” (the Buddha’s keenest followers).¹⁰²

The donors came from several named places, among them Dhamnakataka, Kevurura, Mandara and Rajasaila.^52108107105

The inscriptions are in Prakrit in the Brahmi script. Rapson thought two dialects were used in the Krishna district. One was a widely understood Prakrit. The other was a local one, perhaps with Dravidian elements, written in the variant script of the Bhattiprolu caskets. He saw traces of it in names such as Haku for Sakti.^109110111 Smith noted traditions linking the kings with Prakrit literature, above all Hala’s anthology of verses.¹¹²

Religion

Nineteenth-century writers described the Andhras as Buddhists. The Imperial Gazetteer added that they also patronised Brahmins.^3113114 It credited them with the Amaravati stupa and the other Buddhist buildings of the Krishna and Guntur districts.^3113114 Sewell attributed to them the Amaravati stupa, the Guntupalli caves and many stupas of the Godavari and Krishna tracts.¹¹⁵¹⁶

The inscriptions give a more mixed picture, and the long Nanaghat record describes great Brahmanical sacrifices.¹ Smith called the kings officially Brahmanical, though most of their recorded donations went to Buddhist institutions.¹¹⁶ At Amaravati the gift dated in Pulumavi’s reign was made by householders, not by the king.⁵

Several Amaravati inscriptions place the stupa in the keeping of the Chaitika school, a branch of the Mahasanghikas.⁷⁷ Bühler thought the Chinna inscription might record a Buddhist gift, made by a man described as a sacrificer.¹¹⁷

Other cults are glimpsed too. The Velpuru inscription records a hall built for a god called Bhutagrahaka by a woman torch-bearer in the service of the Aira king.³² Burgess suggested that the serpent (naga) of the Amaravati carvings stood for an older cult with which Buddhism allied itself in the Andhra country.¹¹⁸ Chinese and Tibetan tradition gave the Buddhist teacher Nagarjuna a patron of the “Sadvahana” family.¹¹⁹ Burgess thought this patron one of the last kings, possibly Yajna Sri.¹¹⁹

Art and architecture

The great work of the period in the Telugu country is the carved railing of the Amaravati stupa. Burgess dated it to the later 2nd century, refining Fergusson’s earlier argument from style. He held the stupa itself to be much older.¹²⁰¹²¹

The 1910 revision of Fergusson’s History dated the rail from the 1st century to before the end of the 2nd.⁴⁹¹²² It judged that the decoration of stupas then reached its “highest point of elaboration”.⁴⁹¹²² It counted about three hundred ancient mounds in the Krishna district alone, many of them stupas, among them Bhattiprolu, Jaggayyapeta, Ghantasala and Gudivada.¹²³¹²⁴

Burgess suggested that some heads found at Amaravati portrayed chiefs or kings and their wives, as the Nanaghat statues did.¹²⁵ Longhurst saw Roman influence in some of the Nagarjunakonda sculptures.¹²⁶ See Amaravati stupa and Temples and architecture.

Decline and successors

Sewell has Rudradaman defeat Pulumavi and take most of the dynasty’s western lands. Sewell says that Pulumavi had married Rudradaman’s daughter. In his account a branch, the Chutu-Satakarnis, then held the west.⁵¹⁵⁰ Yajna Sri’s realm was largely confined to the Telugu districts and the eastern Deccan.⁵¹⁵⁰

Sewell ended the dynasty around 225–236 CE, at the hands of the Pallava king Bappa.¹²⁷⁵⁰ The Godavari gazetteer put the Pallava conquest about the end of the 2nd century, since no Andhra inscriptions were known after about 218.⁴⁸ Smith wrote that Yajna Sri was the last king to hold both the eastern and the western provinces. He called the 3rd century “one of the dark spaces” of Indian history.⁷⁴

Excavation and epigraphy changed the picture. Burgess suspected another dynasty between the Andhras and the Pallavas, represented by King Purushadatta of his Jaggayyapeta inscriptions.¹²⁰ Rapson took the same inscriptions to show that a new dynasty succeeded the Satavahanas in the Krishna district.¹²⁸ The Nagarjunakonda inscriptions identified this dynasty as the Ikshvakus.⁹¹²⁹

In 1939 Sircar argued that Yajna Sri ended his rule not long after 200 CE.¹³⁰¹³¹ In his view the Ikshvakus were the first local family to throw off Satavahana overlordship, about the third decade of the 3rd century.¹³⁰¹³¹ In 1959 he dated the end of Satavahana rule in the Krishna–Guntur region to about the close of the first quarter of the 3rd century.⁶⁰

Evidence and disagreements

Chronology

The inscriptions carry only regnal years, so every chronology rests on links with datable outsiders, above all the Saka satraps of western India. Gautamiputra rooted out the family of the satrap Nahapana, whose last known date is 124 CE. The satrap Rudradaman recorded about 150 CE that he twice defeated “Satakarni, the lord of Dakshinapatha”.^2313213322

Source	Span of the dynasty	Gautamiputra Satakarni	Vasishthiputra Pulumavi
Fergusson (1868)134	31 BCE to the 5th century CE	309 CE	330 CE
Burgess (1887)1135	2nd century BCE to c. 200–220 CE	c. 114–135 CE	c. 135–163 CE
Rapson (1908)2376133	from soon after 232 BCE into the 3rd century CE	accession c. 106 CE	accession c. 131 CE
Imperial Gazetteer (1908)3	220 BCE to 236 CE	not given	not given
Smith (1924)147311686	c. 240/230 BCE to c. 225 CE	early 2nd century to c. 128 CE	c. 128–156 CE
Sewell, after Vincent Smith (1932)1650	c. 220 BCE to c. 236 CE	accession 113 CE (Barnett: 106)	accession 138 CE (Barnett: 131)
Sircar (1959)60	to c. 225 CE in the Krishna–Guntur region	c. 106–130 CE	c. 130–159 CE
Shastri (1987)4744	from about the middle of the 1st century BCE	not given	not given

Fergusson’s late dates followed an 1852 study of the Nasik inscriptions, which Burgess regarded as superseded.¹²⁰ For the start of the dynasty, Burgess dated the Hathigumpha inscription to 157 or 92 BCE, according to when a supposed Mauryan era began.¹ Jayaswal and Banerji found no such date on the rock, and identified Kharavela’s Satakarni with Sri Satakarni.⁷¹³⁶ Sircar placed Kharavela about the end of the 1st century BCE.³²

Puranas and inscriptions

Rapson judged the Puranas originally accurate but so corrupted in copying that they could not be used without the check of inscriptions.⁵⁵ The checks cut both ways. The Puranas give Gautamiputra 21 years, but his inscriptions run to his 24th.⁷⁶ For Yajna Sri the Chinna inscription of his 27th year fits the 29 years of the Vayu and Matsya Puranas. Bühler called the agreement “very remarkable”.¹¹⁷ Elliot showed that the older Puranic reckoning, which ran the dynasty from 23 BCE to 437 CE, could not be squared with Asoka’s edicts.¹³⁷

Other open questions

• The order of the later kings. Rapson’s coins put Siva Sri and Chandra Sati soon after Pulumavi and before Yajna Sri. Sewell and Smith follow the Puranas in placing Chandra Sri after him.^5750138 Sircar found the letters of the Chinna inscription of Yajna Sri no earlier than those of the Kodavali and Myakadoni records, even though those kings are usually placed later.⁶⁰
• When the dynasty reached the Krishna. Burgess and Rapson treated the Krishna country as the original home of the Andhras. Sircar dated its conquest to Pulumavi.¹³⁵²
• The Myakadoni Pulumavi. Sukthankar and Sewell identified him with Vasishthiputra Pulumavi. Sircar noted that he is generally placed after Yajna Sri.¹⁰⁵¹⁶⁰
• Sri Sivamaka Sada. Burgess suggested Simuka and Rapson Siva Sri Satakarni. Sircar doubted that the king was a Satavahana at all.⁶¹⁵⁷³²
• The Kodavali date. Sten Konow read the regnal year, with some doubt, as 13; H. Krishna Sastri read 2, and Sircar 11.^1396360
• The local kings of Kotilingala. Shastri (1987) and Lodaya counted Samagopa and Kamvaya among kings who ruled before the Satavahanas, and so dated the dynasty’s rise to the middle of the 1st century BCE. P. V. Parabrahma Sastry instead took Gobhada and Samagopa for Sunga kings, which would make the early Satavahanas their subordinates. See Kotilingala.^4746140

Footnotes

1. James Burgess, The Buddhist Stupas of Amaravati and Jaggayyapeta (1887), p. 3 and notes (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹ ↩¹⁰ ↩¹¹ ↩¹² ↩¹³ ↩¹⁴

2. Sircar, “Two Inscriptions from Guntur District” (1959), p. 86 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸

3. Imperial Gazetteer of India, Provincial Series: Madras, Vol. I (1908), pp. 15–16 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

4. H. Krishna Sastri, “The Kodavali Rock-Inscription of Chandasati”, Epigraphia Indica XVIII (1926), p. 316 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

5. Burgess, Amaravati and Jaggayyapeta (1887), p. 100 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

6. James Fergusson, rev. James Burgess, History of Indian and Eastern Architecture, Vol. I (1910), p. 21 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

7. K. P. Jayaswal and R. D. Banerji, “The Hathigumpha Inscription of Kharavela”, Epigraphia Indica XX (1933), p. 74 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

8. E. J. Rapson, Catalogue of the Coins of the Andhra Dynasty, the Western Ksatrapas, the Traikutaka Dynasty, and the “Bodhi” Dynasty (1908), p. xv and n. 1 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

9. J. Ph. Vogel, “Prakrit Inscriptions from a Buddhist Site at Nagarjunikonda”, Epigraphia Indica XX (1933), p. 6 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

10. Sukthankar, “A New Andhra Inscription of Siri-Pulumavi” (1918), p. 154 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

11. Rapson, Catalogue of the Coins of the Andhra Dynasty (1908), p. lxix (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

12. Elliot, Coins of Southern India (1886), p. 18 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

13. Rapson, Catalogue of the Coins of the Andhra Dynasty (1908), p. xvi and n. 2 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

14. Vincent A. Smith, The Early History of India, 4th ed. (1924), p. 217 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

15. Smith, Early History of India (1924), p. 218 and nn. 1–2 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

16. Sewell, Historical Inscriptions (1932), p. 324 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

17. Walter Elliot, Coins of Southern India (1886), p. 15 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

18. D. C. Sircar, “Erragudi Edicts of Asoka”, Epigraphia Indica XXXII (1959), p. 24 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

19. Rapson, Catalogue of the Coins of the Andhra Dynasty (1908), p. lxxiv (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

20. Rapson, Catalogue of the Coins of the Andhra Dynasty (1908), p. lxxx (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

21. Elliot, Coins of Southern India (1886), p. 22 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

22. Burgess, Amaravati and Jaggayyapeta (1887), p. 4 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

23. Rapson, Catalogue of the Coins of the Andhra Dynasty (1908), p. xxvi (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

24. G. Bühler, “A New Inscription of the Andhra King Yajnasri Gautamiputra”, Epigraphia Indica I (1892), p. 95 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

25. Rea, South Indian Buddhist Antiquities (1894), p. 20, quoting Robert Sewell (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

26. Rapson, Catalogue of the Coins of the Andhra Dynasty (1908), catalogue p. 34 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

27. Rapson, Catalogue of the Coins of the Andhra Dynasty (1908), catalogue p. 46 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

28. Burgess, Amaravati and Jaggayyapeta (1887), p. 13 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

29. Alexander Rea, South Indian Buddhist Antiquities (1894), p. 19, quoting Walter Elliot (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

30. Sewell, Historical Inscriptions (1932), p. 13, entry for A.D. 1 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

31. D. C. Sircar, “Two Inscriptions from Guntur District”, Epigraphia Indica XXXII (1959), p. 82 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

32. Sircar, “Two Inscriptions from Guntur District” (1959), pp. 84–85 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

33. Krishna Sastri, “The Kodavali Rock-Inscription of Chandasati” (1926), p. 317 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

34. Rapson, Catalogue of the Coins of the Andhra Dynasty (1908), catalogue p. 2 and n. 2 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

35. Rapson, Catalogue of the Coins of the Andhra Dynasty (1908), p. lxxi (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

36. Elliot, Coins of Southern India (1886), p. 21 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

37. V. S. Sukthankar, “A New Andhra Inscription of Siri-Pulumavi”, Epigraphia Indica XIV (1918), p. 153 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

38. Sukthankar, “A New Andhra Inscription of Siri-Pulumavi” (1918), p. 155, text, translation and notes (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷

39. W. Francis, Madras District Gazetteers: Bellary (1904), p. 27 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

40. Rapson, Catalogue of the Coins of the Andhra Dynasty (1908), p. lxxxi (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

41. Rapson, Catalogue of the Coins of the Andhra Dynasty (1908), catalogue p. 25 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

42. Rapson, Catalogue of the Coins of the Andhra Dynasty (1908), catalogue p. 23 and n. 1 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

43. Imperial Gazetteer of India, Provincial Series: Hyderabad State (1909), p. 10 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

44. Shastri, Early History of the Deccan: Problems and Perspectives (1987), p. 11 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). Cite-only; paraphrased. ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

45. Shastri, Early History of the Deccan: Problems and Perspectives (1987), p. 31 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). Cite-only; paraphrased. ↩

46. Rachna Shamji Lodaya, An Integrated Approach to the Pre-Satavahana Coinage of the Deccan (PhD thesis, Deccan College, Pune, not before 2011), pp. 130–131 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). Cite-only; paraphrased. ↩ ↩² ↩³

47. Ajay Mitra Shastri, Early History of the Deccan: Problems and Perspectives (1987), p. 9 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). Cite-only; paraphrased. ↩ ↩² ↩³

48. F. R. Hemingway, Madras District Gazetteers: Godavari (1907), p. 18 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

49. Fergusson, History of Indian and Eastern Architecture, Vol. I (1910), p. 22 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

50. Sewell, Historical Inscriptions (1932), p. 325 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷

51. Sewell, Historical Inscriptions (1932), p. 14 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

52. Burgess, Amaravati and Jaggayyapeta (1887), p. 90, inscriptions Nos. 53 and 50 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

53. Rapson, Catalogue of the Coins of the Andhra Dynasty (1908), p. xix (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

54. Rapson, Catalogue of the Coins of the Andhra Dynasty (1908), p. xxiv (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

55. Rapson, Catalogue of the Coins of the Andhra Dynasty (1908), p. xxv (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

56. Rapson, Catalogue of the Coins of the Andhra Dynasty (1908), p. lxxii (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

57. Rapson, Catalogue of the Coins of the Andhra Dynasty (1908), p. xl and n. 2 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

58. Rapson, Catalogue of the Coins of the Andhra Dynasty (1908), p. xli (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

59. Rapson, Catalogue of the Coins of the Andhra Dynasty (1908), p. xlii (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

60. Sircar, “Two Inscriptions from Guntur District” (1959), p. 83 and nn. 7–9 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸

61. Burgess, Amaravati and Jaggayyapeta (1887), p. 61 and n. 2 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

62. Rapson, Catalogue of the Coins of the Andhra Dynasty (1908), p. xliii (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

63. Krishna Sastri, “The Kodavali Rock-Inscription of Chandasati” (1926), p. 319, translation and Sten Konow’s postscript (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

64. Senart, “The Inscriptions in the Caves at Nasik” (1906), p. 72, No. 4 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

65. Rapson, Catalogue of the Coins of the Andhra Dynasty (1908), p. xxi (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

66. Rapson, Catalogue of the Coins of the Andhra Dynasty (1908), p. xxii (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

67. Rapson, Catalogue of the Coins of the Andhra Dynasty (1908), p. xlix (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

68. Smith, Early History of India (1924), p. 225 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

69. Rapson, Catalogue of the Coins of the Andhra Dynasty (1908), p. lii (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

70. É. Senart, “The Inscriptions in the Caves at Nasik”, Epigraphia Indica VIII (1906), p. 61 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

71. Senart, “The Inscriptions in the Caves at Nasik” (1906), p. 62 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

72. Rapson, Catalogue of the Coins of the Andhra Dynasty (1908), p. lviii (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

73. Smith, Early History of India (1924), p. 221 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

74. Smith, Early History of India (1924), p. 226 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

75. Jayaswal and Banerji, “The Hathigumpha Inscription” (1933), p. 86, translation of line 4 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

76. Rapson, Catalogue of the Coins of the Andhra Dynasty (1908), p. xxx (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

77. Burgess, Amaravati and Jaggayyapeta (1887), p. 101 and n. 3 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

78. Wilfred H. Schoff (tr.), The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (1912), § 62, p. 47 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

79. Schoff, Periplus (1912), p. 252 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

80. J. W. McCrindle (tr.), Ancient India as Described by Ptolemy (1885), p. 66 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

81. McCrindle, Ancient India as Described by Ptolemy (1885), pp. 67–68 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

82. Vogel, “Prakrit Inscriptions from Nagarjunikonda” (1933), p. 9 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

83. Vogel, “Prakrit Inscriptions from Nagarjunikonda” (1933), p. 23 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

84. Rapson, Catalogue of the Coins of the Andhra Dynasty (1908), p. lxxxii (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

85. Imperial Gazetteer: Madras, Vol. I (1908), p. 345 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

86. Smith, Early History of India (1924), p. 223 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

87. G. Bühler, “The Bhattiprolu Inscriptions”, Epigraphia Indica II (1894), p. 327 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

88. Bühler, “The Bhattiprolu Inscriptions” (1894), p. 328 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

89. Elliot, Coins of Southern India (1886), p. 23 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

90. Rapson, Catalogue of the Coins of the Andhra Dynasty (1908), p. lxxvi (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

91. Rapson, Catalogue of the Coins of the Andhra Dynasty (1908), catalogue p. 10 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

92. Rapson, Catalogue of the Coins of the Andhra Dynasty (1908), catalogue p. 20 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

93. Rapson, Catalogue of the Coins of the Andhra Dynasty (1908), catalogue p. 29 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

94. Rapson, Catalogue of the Coins of the Andhra Dynasty (1908), catalogue p. 50, n. 3, quoting Walter Elliot (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

95. Rea, South Indian Buddhist Antiquities (1894), p. 21 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

96. Rea, South Indian Buddhist Antiquities (1894), p. 23 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

97. Longhurst, Nagarjunakonda (1938), p. 10 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

98. H. Hargreaves (ed.), Annual Report of the Archaeological Survey of India, 1927–28 (1931), p. 121 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

99. Rapson, Catalogue of the Coins of the Andhra Dynasty (1908), p. xcii (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

100. Rapson, Catalogue of the Coins of the Andhra Dynasty (1908), p. xciii (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

101. Rapson, Catalogue of the Coins of the Andhra Dynasty (1908), p. lxxxix (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

102. Burgess, Amaravati and Jaggayyapeta (1887), p. 82, inscription No. 28 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

103. Burgess, Amaravati and Jaggayyapeta (1887), p. 103, inscriptions Nos. 27 and 38 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

104. Burgess, Amaravati and Jaggayyapeta (1887), p. 105, inscription No. 49 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

105. Burgess, Amaravati and Jaggayyapeta (1887), p. 104, inscriptions Nos. 39 and 41 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

106. Burgess, Amaravati and Jaggayyapeta (1887), p. 91, inscription No. 36 and n. 5 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

107. Burgess, Amaravati and Jaggayyapeta (1887), p. 85, inscriptions Nos. 22 and 30 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

108. Burgess, Amaravati and Jaggayyapeta (1887), p. 78, inscription No. 19 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

109. Rapson, Catalogue of the Coins of the Andhra Dynasty (1908), p. xc (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

110. Rapson, Catalogue of the Coins of the Andhra Dynasty (1908), p. xci (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

111. Rapson, Catalogue of the Coins of the Andhra Dynasty (1908), p. xx, n. 3 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

112. Smith, Early History of India (1924), p. 220 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

113. Imperial Gazetteer: Madras, Vol. I (1908), pp. 192–193 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

114. Imperial Gazetteer: Madras, Vol. I (1908), p. 301 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

115. Robert Sewell, The Historical Inscriptions of Southern India (1932), pp. 8–9 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

116. Smith, Early History of India (1924), p. 222 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

117. Bühler, “A New Inscription of the Andhra King Yajnasri Gautamiputra” (1892), p. 96 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

118. Burgess, Amaravati and Jaggayyapeta (1887), p. 93 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

119. Burgess, Amaravati and Jaggayyapeta (1887), p. 8 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

120. Burgess, Amaravati and Jaggayyapeta (1887), p. 11 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

121. Burgess, Amaravati and Jaggayyapeta (1887), p. 12 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

122. Fergusson, History of Indian and Eastern Architecture, Vol. I (1910), p. 81 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

123. Fergusson, History of Indian and Eastern Architecture, Vol. I (1910), p. 82 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

124. Fergusson, History of Indian and Eastern Architecture, Vol. I (1910), p. 83 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

125. Burgess, Amaravati and Jaggayyapeta (1887), p. 97 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

126. Longhurst, Nagarjunakonda (1938), p. 15 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

127. Sewell, Historical Inscriptions (1932), p. 16 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

128. Rapson, Catalogue of the Coins of the Andhra Dynasty (1908), p. xliv (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

129. A. H. Longhurst, The Buddhist Antiquities of Nagarjunakonda (1938), p. 4 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

130. D. C. Sircar, The Successors of the Satavahanas in Lower Deccan (1939), p. 3 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

131. Sircar, Successors of the Satavahanas (1939), p. 4 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

132. Rapson, Catalogue of the Coins of the Andhra Dynasty (1908), p. xxvii (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

133. Rapson, Catalogue of the Coins of the Andhra Dynasty (1908), p. xxxviii (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

134. James Fergusson, Tree and Serpent Worship (1868), Appendix F, PDF p. 460 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

135. Burgess, Amaravati and Jaggayyapeta (1887), p. 5 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

136. Jayaswal and Banerji, “The Hathigumpha Inscription” (1933), p. 83 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

137. Elliot, Coins of Southern India (1886), p. 16 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

138. Smith, Early History of India (1924), table “The Later Andhra Kings and Connected Dynasties”, PDF p. 271 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

139. Krishna Sastri, “The Kodavali Rock-Inscription of Chandasati” (1926), p. 318 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

140. V. V. Krishna Sastry, Proto and Early History of the Karimnagar Region (PhD thesis, Karnatak University, 1978), p. 205 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). Cite-only; paraphrased. ↩