Pallavas

The Pallavas were the kings of Kanchi (Kanchipuram), but for several centuries they also ruled the Telugu country south of the Krishna. Their oldest known charter, the Mayidavolu plates, was sent from Kanchipura by the crown prince Sivaskandavarman to his officer at Amaravati (then Dhannakada).¹² It was about a village in Andhrapatha, the Telugu country.¹²

E. Hultzsch concluded in 1901 that the Pallava kingdom then included “the Telugu country as far as the Krishna river”.¹ This page follows the dynasty in the Telugu districts: the Guntur, Nellore, Prakasam, Kurnool, Kadapa (Cuddapah) and Chittoor country. Its history at Kanchi and in the Tamil country is told only where it bears on the north.

The name and the origin of the Pallavas

The origin of the Pallavas was already disputed a century ago. V. Venkayya and L. Rice connected the name with the Pahlavas, the Parthians of north-western India.³⁴ The Satavahana king Gautamiputra Satakarni claimed to have defeated these Pahlavas.³⁴

R. Gopalan, writing in 1928, rejected this.³ He noted that the Pallava inscriptions never mention any migration.³ He also noted that Vincent Smith had given up the Parthian theory.³ Smith suggested instead that the Pallavas were a tribe or caste formed in the northern part of the Madras Presidency, “possibly in the Vengi country”.³

G. Jouveau-Dubreuil in 1920 connected the early kings of Kanchi with Suvisakha, a Pahlava minister of the Saka ruler Rudradaman.⁵⁶ He pointed out that the Mayidavolu plates spell the name Palava.⁵⁶ Gopalan thought this connection also lacked evidence.⁶⁷ He concluded that “the theory of foreign origin” was “without foundation”.⁶⁷

Other writers looked for a southern origin. One derived the dynasty from Manipallavam, the home of the Naga mother of the Tamil chief Tondaman Ilam Tiraiyan. Another took the early Pallavas to be the Tiraiyar of Tamil literature. Gopalan rejected both, because the Pallavas wrote their charters in Prakrit and Sanskrit, claimed the Bharadvaja gotra (clan) and performed Vedic sacrifices.⁸⁹

H. Krishna Sastri suggested in 1920 that the family arose from intermarriage between Brahmans and Dravidian peoples.¹⁰ He thought the Pallavas’ own story of a Brahman ancestor who married a Naga woman seemed to show this.¹⁰

D. C. Sircar argued in 1939 that the Pallavas were originally officers of the Satavahanas.¹¹¹² He argued that the Bharadvaja gotra of their earliest records pointed to a Brahman family from northern India.¹¹¹² He held that they cannot have been Parthians.¹¹¹²

In Sanskrit pallava means a sprout.¹³ E. Hultzsch noted that the name of the prince Buddhyankura, “sprout of the Buddha”, was formed with ankura, a word of the same meaning.¹³ He added that other Pallavas formed surnames in the same way.¹³

How the Telugu-country charters came to light

The first of the Telugu-country grants to be published were two Sanskrit charters in Sir Walter Elliot’s collection of facsimiles (exact copies). J. F. Fleet edited them in 1876. They were the Uruvupalli grant of the crown prince Vishnugopavarman and the Mangalur grant of Simhavarman. Fleet had no information on where the Uruvupalli plates had been found. He remarked that “but little is known as yet regarding the Pallava family”, beyond its having ruled in the Deccan before the Chalukyas.¹⁴¹⁵

A grant of a Pallava queen, Charudevi, now in the British Museum, came from Elliot’s collection too.¹⁶ Robert Sewell recorded in 1884 that it had been found near Guntur.¹⁷ G. Bühler edited the Prakrit Hirahadagalli plates of Sivaskandavarman in 1892.¹⁸ In the same year E. Hultzsch edited a single plate from Darsi in the Nellore district.¹⁹

The charters edited in Epigraphia Indica over the next forty years came almost all from the Guntur and Nellore districts. They include:^202122102324

• the Mayidavolu plates, found in 1899
• the Pikira grant
• the two sets of Chendalur plates
• the two Omgodu grants
• the Chura and Vilavatti grants^202122102324

Two charters of the later kings of Kanchi were added in the 1950s.²⁵²⁶ They were the Reyuru grant of Narasimhavarman II and the Vunna Guravayapalem plates of Paramesvaravarman I.²⁵²⁶ D. C. Sircar also published a Prakrit pillar inscription of a Pallava king Simhavarman from Manchikallu in Palnad.²⁷²⁸ He took it to be the earliest Pallava record of all.²⁷²⁸

The Prakrit charters: Andhrapatha and Dhanyakataka

Three charters in Prakrit are the oldest Pallava grants on copper. The Mayidavolu plates describe the crown prince Sivaskandavarman as “of the family of the Pallavas, who belongs to the gotra of the Bharadvajas”. He orders his official at Amaravati to treat the village of Viripara in Andhrapatha as a Brahman’s grant. The order is dated in the tenth year, apparently of his father’s reign.¹²

The Hirahadagalli plates were bought at Hirahadagalli in the Ballari (then Bellary) district.¹⁸²⁹³⁰ In them the same prince, now king, calls himself the righteous supreme king of great kings, and a performer of the Agnishtoma, Vajapeya and Asvamedha sacrifices.¹⁸²⁹³⁰ He confirms a garden given by “the great king, the lord Bappa”.¹⁸²⁹³⁰ Bühler took Bappa to be probably his father.¹⁸²⁹³⁰

The third is the British Museum grant of Charudevi, issued in the reign of a king Vijaya-Skandavarman and found near Guntur.¹³¹⁷

Writers drew the same conclusion from these grants: the Pallavas had succeeded the Satavahanas in the Krishna valley. Hultzsch held that the kingdom of Sivaskandavarman and his predecessor reached in the north “the Telugu country as far as the Krishna river”.¹ Jouveau-Dubreuil wrote in 1917 that the Pallavas “have thus succeeded the Andhras on the banks of the Krishna”.³¹

Gopalan thought that the kingdom was divided into two parts.³²³³ One was a northern part with Amaravati (Dhanyakataka) as its capital.³²³³ The other was a southern part round Kanchi, bounded by the Palar in the south and the Krishna in the north.³²³³

Krishna Sastri pointed to the name of the Satahani district in the Hirahadagalli plates, and of Satavahani-hara in a Satavahana inscription from the same region.³⁴ He saw in these names a sign that the Pallavas were the political successors of the Satavahanas.³⁴

Sircar’s Manchikallu inscription carries the story a step back. It records gifts made by a Pallava king Simhavarman of the Bharadvaja gotra. Sircar placed it about the end of the 3rd century.²⁸ He conjectured (guessed) that this Simhavarman brought the Krishna–Guntur region under the Pallavas, perhaps ending the rule of the Ikshvakus of Vijayapuri.²⁸ After dating the last Ikshvaku records, he moved the Pallava conquest to about the middle of the 4th century.³⁵

The date of Sivaskandavarman himself is disputed:³⁶³⁷³⁸

• about 234 in Sewell’s chronology of 1932³⁶
• 250–275 in Jouveau-Dubreuil’s³⁷
• the first quarter of the 4th century in Sircar’s³⁸

Vishnugopa of Kanchi and Samudragupta

The Allahabad pillar inscription of the Gupta emperor Samudragupta names Vishnugopa of Kanchi among the kings of the south whom he captured and released. Most scholars have taken him for a Pallava, since the name was common among later Pallava kings.³⁴³⁹ Gopalan dated him about 340–350.⁴⁰

Where the encounter took place is disputed, and Jouveau-Dubreuil argued that Samudragupta never reached Kanchi.⁴¹⁴² In his view, a coalition of kings stopped Samudragupta near the Godavari and the Krishna.⁴¹⁴² Its head was Vishnugopa, who “reigned on the right bank of the Krishna”.⁴¹⁴² Gopalan rejected this and held that there was no evidence against the older view that Samudragupta advanced against Kanchi.⁴³ See Vishnugopa of Kanchi.

The Nellore–Guntur line of the Sanskrit charters

A group of Sanskrit charters found in the Guntur and Nellore districts gives a line of Pallava kings.⁴⁴⁴⁵ These kings issued their grants not from Kanchi but from places called Tambrapa, Palakkada, Dasanapura and Menmatura.⁴⁴⁴⁵ Krishna Sastri wrote that “a century or so” before Simhavishnu “there ruled a regular line of Pallava kings in and about the Nellore district”.³⁴ Together the grants give five generations.⁴⁶⁴⁷

• Skandavarman II, son of Viravarman and grandson of Skandavarman I, issued the first Omgodu grant from Tambrapa in the 33rd year of his reign.⁴⁵
• His son, the crown prince Vishnugopa, issued the Uruvupalli grant from Palakkada in the 11th year of a king Simhavarman.¹⁴⁴⁸
• Vishnugopa’s son Simhavarman issued the second Omgodu grant in his 4th year, the Pikira grant from Menmatura in his 5th, the Mangalur grant from Dasanapura in his 8th, and the Vilavatti grant in his 10th.^49501551
• A Vijaya-Vishnugopavarman, son of a Simhavarman, issued the Chura grant from Palotkata, which Sircar took to be the same as Palakkada.⁵²⁵³

Their grants give villages in three districts:^45545155

• Karmarashtra (Kammanadu), the country of Ongole and Bapatla
• Mundarashtra, round Kovur in the Nellore district
• Vengorashtra, which Sircar took for the southern fringe of the Vengi country⁵⁵

The Darsi fragment, issued from Dasanapura by a great-grandson of a king Virakorchavarman, may belong to the same line.⁵⁶ Krishna Sastri identified Virakorchavarman with Viravarman.⁴⁶

Why did they not rule from Kanchi?

The scholars disagree. Krishna Sastri, like V. Venkayya before him, thought that about 350 the Pallavas were driven out of Kanchi, perhaps by the Cholas.⁴⁴⁴⁶⁵⁷ He thought that only Kumaravishnu I, a grandson of Viravarman, “re-conquered Kanchi-pura”.⁴⁴⁴⁶⁵⁷

The Nellore gazetteer of 1942 similarly held that the centre of Pallava power moved to the Telugu country.⁵⁸ It thought this was perhaps because the Cholas had driven them out of Kanchi.⁵⁸ Jouveau-Dubreuil concluded in 1920 that from about 400 to 550 the Pallava empire was divided into two kingdoms.⁵⁹ They were Tondaimandalam round Kanchi in the south, and the Guntur and Nellore districts in the north.⁵⁹

Sircar suggested that a Pallava prince sent as viceroy to the north set up a separate principality there.⁶⁰ Gopalan rejected the idea of a Chola interlude (break) at Kanchi.⁶¹⁶² He argued that the places named were simply camps where the king happened to be when a grant was made.⁶¹⁶²

Where were the camps?

None of the four camps has been certainly identified. Fleet wondered whether Palakkada might be Palghat.¹⁵ Hultzsch rejected the identification with Pulicat made by A. C. Burnell.⁶³ He noted Venkayya’s view that all three places must be looked for in the Nellore district.⁶³

Venkayya suggested that Dasanapura was the ancient name of Darsi.⁶¹⁶⁴⁵⁸ Sircar and the Nellore gazetteer reported this identification.⁶⁴⁵⁸ The gazetteer added that Nellore itself is called Palakkada in inscriptions, and that Tambrapa was probably Chebrolu in the Bapatla taluk.⁵⁸

Dates

Fleet placed the Uruvupalli grant in the 5th century from its letters.¹⁴ A Jain work, the Lokavibhaga, was copied in the 22nd year of a Simhavarman, lord of Kanchi, equated with 458.⁶⁵⁶⁶ Fleet, Krishna Sastri and Gopalan took this king to be Vishnugopa’s son and dated his accession to 436.⁶⁵⁶⁶

Jouveau-Dubreuil distrusted the Lokavibhaga date because it does not say which Simhavarman is meant.⁶⁷³⁷ He placed this Simhavarman about 500–525.⁶⁷³⁷ Krishnamacharlu, editing the Vilavatti grant, defended 436 against an astronomical objection of Krishna Sastri’s.⁵¹ See Evidence and disagreements below.

The Kadambas and the Sriparvata frontier

The Talagunda inscription of the Kadamba kings tells how Mayurasarman, a Brahman student at Kanchi, quarrelled with a Pallava horseman and took up arms. In F. Kielhorn’s translation he “defeated in battle the frontier-guards of the Pallava lords”.⁶⁸⁶⁹ He then “occupied the inaccessible forest stretching to the gates of Sriparvata”.⁶⁸⁶⁹

Sircar placed Sriparvata in the Kurnool district.⁷⁰ Sewell’s chronology took the raid as far east as Srisailam.⁷¹ The Pallava kings could not subdue him, so they made him a chief of their own over the country between the western sea and a boundary called Prehara.⁶⁸

The Simhavishnu line and the loss of the north

From about 575 a new line ruled at Kanchi: Simhavishnu, his son Mahendravarman I, and their successors.⁷²⁷³ Jouveau-Dubreuil argued in 1917 that this line descended from the Pallavas of the Guntur and Nellore country.⁷⁴⁷⁵⁷⁶ He explained the Telugu surnames of Mahendravarman I in his cave inscriptions by supposing that he or his father had ruled north of Nellore.⁷⁴⁷⁵⁷⁶

Gopalan noted these Telugu surnames.⁷⁷⁷⁸⁷⁹ But he found no clear evidence that Mahendravarman’s cave style had been borrowed from caves on the Krishna.⁷⁷⁷⁸⁷⁹

The northern provinces were lost to the Chalukyas of Badami. The Aihole inscription of Pulakesin II records that he took Pithapuram (then Pishtapura).⁸⁰⁸¹ It records that he ravaged “the water of Kunala”, which Kielhorn identified with the Kolleru lake.⁸⁰⁸¹ He also drove the lord of the Pallavas behind the walls of Kanchipura.⁸⁰⁸¹

Gopalan wrote that early in the 7th century Pulakesin II “made himself Master of Vengi which till then was under the Pallavas”.⁸² In Gopalan’s account, Pulakesin placed his brother Kubja-Vishnuvardhana there as viceroy.⁸² Sewell had written in 1884 that “early in the seventh century the Pallavas were driven out of their northern possessions, the Kingdom of Vengi”.⁸³

Jouveau-Dubreuil concluded that Mahendravarman I saved Kanchi but “lost the districts of Guntur and Nellore which remained in the hands of the Chalukyas”.⁵⁹ The Kopparam plates of Pulakesin II were found in the Narasaraopet taluk and are dated in his 21st year.⁸⁴⁸⁵⁵⁴ They grant land in Karmarashtra, the district of the earlier Pallava grants.⁸⁴⁸⁵⁵⁴

The struggle went on in the Nellore country. The earliest record in Butterworth and Venugopaul Chetty’s collection of Nellore inscriptions is a grant of the Chalukya king Vikramaditya I.⁸⁶ They saw in it “an indication of the dispossession of the Pallavas from this part of the East Coast”.⁸⁶

Yet the Vunna Guravayapalem plates of Paramesvaravarman I were issued from Kanchipura in his 19th year.⁸⁷⁸⁸ They grant a village in the Podili–Kandukur country.⁸⁷⁸⁸ Sircar dated the grant to December 687.⁸⁷⁸⁸

The Reyuru grant of Narasimhavarman II gives a village in Mel-Mundarashtra.⁵⁴ P. B. Desai placed this in the Atmakur taluk of Nellore.⁵⁴ He suggested that these kings had won back part of Karmarashtra from the Eastern Chalukyas.⁵⁴ Desai also noted an inscription of Paramesvaravarman II found at Ulchala near Kurnool.⁸⁹

Under Nandivarman II the general Udayachandra pursued a Nishada chief named Prithivivyaghra out of the land of Vishnuraja.⁹⁰ Gopalan identified Vishnuraja with the Eastern Chalukya Vishnuvardhana III.⁹⁰

The end of Pallava rule in the Telugu land

In the 9th century the Pallavas’ hold on the south of the Telugu country rested partly on vassals. An inscription at Gudimallam, near Kalahasti, shows the Bana chief Vidyadhara acknowledging the Pallava king Nripatunga.⁹¹ Sewell’s chronology lists an inscription of 864–65 in the Chittoor district, dated in the eleventh year of Nripatunga.⁹² Its table of Pallava kings makes the Bana chief Vidyadhara his tributary.⁹³

The Chola king Aditya I conquered Tondaimandalam.⁹⁴ Gopalan noted an inscription of his 21st year near Kalahasti.⁹⁴ It showed that his empire reached Kalahasti by about 900.⁹⁴

The Cuddapah gazetteer of 1915 held that the Pallavas ruled the eastern taluks of Kadapa for four centuries.⁹⁵ In its account, Aditya I badly weakened their power at the end of the 9th century.⁹⁵ After the main line ended, a branch called the Nolambas ruled Nolambavadi, in the Ballari district and parts of Mysore, until the 13th century.⁹⁶ The Nolambas claimed descent from Trinayana-Pallava.⁹⁶

The Pallava name lived on in the Telugu country. The Telugu Cholas of Renandu took names and titles of the Pallava kings of the Simhavishnu line.⁹⁷ Butterworth and Venugopaul Chetty found that the later chiefs of the Nellore district were mainly “of Pallava and Chola descent”.⁸⁶ A grant of a Pallava king called Mukkanti-Kaduvetti was still cited in a land dispute in the Kadapa district in the 13th century.⁹⁸

Government

The charters show a royal order passing from the king to local officers. Sivaskandavarman’s Mayidavolu order went to his vyaprita or vapata, his official at Dhannakada.² Sircar called this officer the governor.⁹⁹

The Hirahadagalli plates address lords of provinces, royal princes, generals, rulers of districts, custom-house officers and village freeholders.²⁹¹⁰⁰ They grant immunities (freedom from dues) “of the eighteen kinds”.²⁹¹⁰⁰ The Sanskrit grants are addressed to the villagers and to officers.^45101102 These officers include adhikritas, ayuktakas, royal favourites (vallabhas) and touring officials (sancharantakas).^45101102

Gopalan saw in these grants an administration on the lines of the Dharmasastras and Arthasastra, the old books of law and statecraft.¹⁰³ In his view, salt and jaggery were royal monopolies.¹⁰³ The Vilavatti grant lists the dues the king gave up in one village.¹⁰⁴ Among them were taxes on metal-workers, leather-workers, cloth-dealers, weavers, barbers, gambling and marriages.¹⁰⁴

Religion

The kings of the Sanskrit charters open their grants with the words jitam bhagavata, “victory has been achieved by the Lord”.^63101105 They call themselves parama-bhagavata, devotees of Vishnu.^63101105 Sivaskandavarman claimed the Vedic sacrifices, including the horse sacrifice.²⁹¹⁰⁶ Later charters credit the Pallava family as a whole with many horse sacrifices.²⁹¹⁰⁶

The bull was the crest of the family.^13107108 P. B. Desai noted that it can first be recognised beyond doubt on the seal of the Vilavatti grant.¹⁰⁸ Buddhism was still honoured at Amaravati.¹⁰⁹ A Sanskrit inscription on a pillar there gives a list of Pallava kings.¹⁰⁹ It records that Simhavarman II “paid honour to the shrine of Buddha at Dhanyaghata”.¹⁰⁹

Art and architecture

No building in the Telugu country can be dated to the Pallavas by an inscription. Jouveau-Dubreuil argued in 1917 that many of the Buddhist marbles of the Krishna valley were carved “when the Pallava kings reigned over this country”, and not under the Satavahanas.¹¹⁰ He also found the cave temples at Undavalli to be “entirely” in the style of Mahendravarman I.¹¹¹¹¹² He did not, however, credit them to the Pallavas, but to the Vishnukundins.¹¹¹¹¹²

Gopalan thought the origin of the Undavalli caves still unsettled.⁷⁹ A. H. Longhurst discovered the rock-cut temples at Bhairavakonda in the Nellore district.¹¹³ Gopalan described them as “attributable to the Pallava age”.¹¹³

Evidence and disagreements

Chronology

Source	Dates proposed
Fleet (1876)14	Uruvupalli grant 5th century
Jouveau-Dubreuil (1920)37	Bappa 225–250, Sivaskandavarman 250–275, Vishnugopa 325–350, Simhavarman son of Vishnugopa 500–525
Krishna Sastri (1920)4465	Prakrit charters at least the beginning of the 4th century; Simhavarman from 436
Gopalan (1928)40114115	Bappa about 215; Vishnugopa 340–350; Simhavarman 436–460; Simhavishnu 575–600
Sewell (1932)3671	Mayidavolu plates about 234; Simhavarman from 436
Sircar (1939)38116	Sivaskandavarman first quarter of the 4th century; Simhavarman from 436
Sircar (1963)35	Simhavarman of Manchikallu and Sivaskandavarman in the 340s

Were the Prakrit and Sanskrit kings one family?

The kings of the Prakrit charters, those of the Nellore–Guntur grants and those of the Simhavishnu line all call themselves Bharadvajas. But their charters never connect them. Hultzsch could establish no “lineal connection” between the kings of the Chendalur plates and those of the Uruvupalli group.¹¹⁷ Gopalan concluded from the shared gotra and the long genealogy of a 7th-century pillar inscription at Vayalur that they were one family.^42118119 But he called his table tentative.^42118119 Sircar treated the kings of the north as a branch line.¹²⁰⁶⁰

Sivaskandavarman and Vijaya-Skandavarman

Gopalan thought the Vijaya-Skandavarman of Charudevi’s grant was “presumably identical” with Sivaskandavarman, because the letters of their grants are so alike.¹¹⁴¹²¹ Jouveau-Dubreuil had doubted the identity in 1917.¹²² Sircar argued that Siva was part of the name, not an honorific (title of respect), and that the British Museum grant was later.^123124125 He suggested that Vijaya-Skandavarman may have belonged to the Nellore–Guntur house.^123124125

The place of Kumaravishnu II

Hultzsch placed the Chendalur kings between Simhavarman and Simhavishnu because their letters looked later.¹¹⁷ Jouveau-Dubreuil argued in 1920 that Kumaravishnu II reigned at Kanchi before Simhavarman, as a contemporary of Skandavarman II.¹²⁶¹²⁷ Sircar put him after Vishnugopa and before the kings of the Udayendiram plates.¹²⁸ See Kumaravishnu II.

The Mallam record

An 8th-century Tamil inscription at Mallam in the Gudur taluk, dated in the 15th year of Nandipottarasar, records a gift made at the order of a Chalukya, “Chalakkiaradar”.¹²⁹ Butterworth and Venugopaul Chetty read it as showing a Pallava king ruling part of the district “in subordination, apparently, to the Western Chalukyans”.⁸⁶ The Nellore gazetteer of 1942 took the Chalukya to be the Eastern Chalukya Vishnuvardhana III.¹³⁰ It concluded that both he and a local chief then acknowledged the supremacy of the Pallava king Nandivarman II.¹³⁰

Footnotes

1. Hultzsch, “Mayidavolu Plates of Sivaskandavarman” (1901), p. 85 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

2. Hultzsch, “Mayidavolu Plates of Sivaskandavarman” (1901), p. 88, translation (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

3. Gopalan, History of the Pallavas of Kanchi (1928), p. 16 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

4. Gopalan, History of the Pallavas (1928), p. 17 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

5. Gopalan, History of the Pallavas (1928), p. 19 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

6. Gopalan, History of the Pallavas (1928), p. 20 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

7. Gopalan, History of the Pallavas (1928), p. 26 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

8. Gopalan, History of the Pallavas (1928), p. 21 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

9. Gopalan, History of the Pallavas (1928), pp. 22–23 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

10. H. Krishna Sastri, “Two Pallava Copper-plate Grants”, Epigraphia Indica XV (1919–20), p. 246 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

11. D. C. Sircar, The Successors of the Satavahanas in Lower Deccan (1939), p. 152 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

12. Sircar, Successors of the Satavahanas (1939), pp. 154–156 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

13. Hultzsch, “British Museum Plates of Charudevi” (1906), p. 144 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

14. J. F. Fleet, “Sanskrit and Old-Canarese Inscriptions, No. XII”, Indian Antiquary V (1876), p. 50 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

15. Fleet, “Sanskrit and Old-Canarese Inscriptions, No. XV”, Indian Antiquary V (1876), p. 154 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

16. E. Hultzsch, “British Museum Plates of Charudevi”, Epigraphia Indica VIII (1905–06), p. 143 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

17. Robert Sewell, Lists of Inscriptions, and Sketch of the Dynasties of Southern India (1884), p. 211 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

18. G. Bühler, “A Prakrit Grant of the Pallava King Sivaskandavarman”, Epigraphia Indica I (1892), p. 2 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

19. E. Hultzsch, “A Plate of a Pallava Copper-plate Grant”, Epigraphia Indica I (1892), p. 397 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

20. E. Hultzsch, “Mayidavolu Plates of Sivaskandavarman”, Epigraphia Indica VI (1900–01), p. 84 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

21. E. Hultzsch, “Pikira Grant of Simhavarman”, Epigraphia Indica VIII (1905–06), p. 159 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

22. E. Hultzsch, “Chendalur Plates of Kumaravishnu II”, Epigraphia Indica VIII (1905–06), p. 233 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

23. C. R. Krishnamacharlu, “Chura Grant of Pallava Vijaya-Vishnugopavarman”, Epigraphia Indica XXIV (1937–38), p. 137 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

24. C. R. Krishnamacharlu, “Vilavatti Grant of Pallava Simhavarman”, Epigraphia Indica XXIV (1937–38), p. 296 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

25. P. B. Desai, “Reyuru Grant of Pallava Narasimhavarman; Year 12”, Epigraphia Indica XXIX (1951–52), p. 89 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

26. D. C. Sircar and P. Seshadri Sastri, “Vunna Guravayapalem Plates of Paramesvaravarman I, Year 19”, Epigraphia Indica XXXII (1957–58), p. 91 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

27. D. C. Sircar, “Two Inscriptions from Guntur District”, Epigraphia Indica XXXII (1957–58), p. 82 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

28. Sircar, “Two Inscriptions from Guntur District” (EI XXXII), p. 89 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

29. Bühler, “A Prakrit Grant of the Pallava King Sivaskandavarman” (1892), p. 7, translation (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸

30. Bühler, “A Prakrit Grant of the Pallava King Sivaskandavarman” (1892), pp. 4, 8 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

31. G. Jouveau-Dubreuil, The Pallavas (1917), p. 1 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

32. Gopalan, History of the Pallavas (1928), p. 34 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

33. Gopalan, History of the Pallavas (1928), p. 36 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

34. Krishna Sastri, “Two Pallava Copper-plate Grants” (1920), p. 247 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

35. D. C. Sircar, “More Inscriptions from Nagarjunikonda”, Epigraphia Indica XXXV (1963–64), p. 6 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

36. Robert Sewell and S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar, The Historical Inscriptions of Southern India (1932), p. 16 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

37. Jouveau-Dubreuil, Ancient History of the Deccan (1920), p. 70, genealogical table (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

38. Sircar, Successors of the Satavahanas (1939), p. 166 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

39. Gopalan, History of the Pallavas (1928), p. 46 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

40. Gopalan, History of the Pallavas (1928), p. 33 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

41. Jouveau-Dubreuil, The Pallavas (1917), pp. 14–15 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

42. Gopalan, History of the Pallavas (1928), p. 44 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

43. Gopalan, History of the Pallavas (1928), p. 45 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

44. Krishna Sastri, “Two Pallava Copper-plate Grants” (1920), p. 248 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

45. Krishna Sastri, “Two Pallava Copper-plate Grants” (1920), p. 250 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

46. Krishna Sastri, “Two Pallava Copper-plate Grants” (1920), p. 249 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

47. Sircar, Successors of the Satavahanas (1939), p. 174 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

48. Fleet, “Sanskrit and Old-Canarese Inscriptions, No. XII” (1876), p. 53, translation (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

49. Krishna Sastri, “Two Pallava Copper-plate Grants” (1920), p. 252 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

50. Hultzsch, “Pikira Grant of Simhavarman” (1906), p. 160 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

51. Krishnamacharlu, “Vilavatti Grant” (1938), p. 301 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

52. Krishnamacharlu, “Chura Grant” (1938), p. 138 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

53. Sircar, Successors of the Satavahanas (1939), p. 172 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

54. Desai, “Reyuru Grant” (EI XXIX), p. 94 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

55. Sircar, Successors of the Satavahanas (1939), p. 212 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

56. Hultzsch, “A Plate of a Pallava Copper-plate Grant” (1892), p. 398 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

57. Gopalan, History of the Pallavas (1928), p. 55 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

58. Gazetteer of the Nellore District, brought up to 1938, Vol. A (1942), p. 30 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

59. Jouveau-Dubreuil, Ancient History of the Deccan (1920), p. 69 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

60. Sircar, Successors of the Satavahanas (1939), p. 175 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

61. Gopalan, History of the Pallavas (1928), p. 62 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

62. Gopalan, History of the Pallavas (1928), pp. 63–65 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

63. Hultzsch, “Pikira Grant of Simhavarman” (1906), p. 161 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

64. Sircar, Successors of the Satavahanas (1939), p. 211 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

65. Krishna Sastri, “Two Pallava Copper-plate Grants” (1920), p. 253 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

66. Gopalan, History of the Pallavas (1928), p. 66 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

67. Jouveau-Dubreuil, The Pallavas (1917), p. 18 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

68. F. Kielhorn, “Talagunda Pillar Inscription of Kakusthavarman”, Epigraphia Indica VIII (1905–06), p. 28 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

69. Kielhorn, “Talagunda Pillar Inscription” (1906), p. 34, translation of verse 14 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

70. Sircar, Successors of the Satavahanas (1939), p. 184, note (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

71. Sewell and Aiyangar, Historical Inscriptions of Southern India (1932), p. 18 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

72. Gopalan, History of the Pallavas (1928), p. 79 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

73. Gopalan, History of the Pallavas (1928), p. 83 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

74. Jouveau-Dubreuil, The Pallavas (1917), pp. 24–25 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

75. Jouveau-Dubreuil, The Pallavas (1917), p. 27 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

76. Jouveau-Dubreuil, The Pallavas (1917), p. 28 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

77. Gopalan, History of the Pallavas (1928), p. 90 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

78. Gopalan, History of the Pallavas (1928), p. 91 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

79. Gopalan, History of the Pallavas (1928), p. 78 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

80. F. Kielhorn, “Aihole Inscription of Pulikesin II”, Epigraphia Indica VI (1900–01), p. 2 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

81. Kielhorn, “Aihole Inscription of Pulikesin II” (1901), p. 11, translation of verses 27–29 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

82. Gopalan, History of the Pallavas (1928), p. 89 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

83. Sewell, Lists of Inscriptions, and Sketch of the Dynasties (1884), p. 212 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

84. E. Hultzsch, “Kopparam Plates of Pulakesin II”, Epigraphia Indica XVIII (1925–26), p. 257 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

85. Hultzsch, “Kopparam Plates of Pulakesin II” (1926), p. 258 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

86. Alan Butterworth and V. Venugopaul Chetty, A Collection of the Inscriptions on Copper-Plates and Stones in the Nellore District, Part I (1905), Preface, p. vi (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

87. Sircar and Seshadri Sastri, “Vunna Guravayapalem Plates” (EI XXXII), p. 95 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

88. Sircar and Seshadri Sastri, “Vunna Guravayapalem Plates” (EI XXXII), p. 96 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

89. Desai, “Reyuru Grant” (EI XXIX), p. 92 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

90. Gopalan, History of the Pallavas (1928), p. 125 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

91. Gopalan, History of the Pallavas (1928), p. 140 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

92. Sewell and Aiyangar, Historical Inscriptions of Southern India (1932), p. 36 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

93. Sewell and Aiyangar, Historical Inscriptions of Southern India (1932), p. 375, table of Pallava kings (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

94. Gopalan, History of the Pallavas (1928), p. 133 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

95. Brackenbury, Cuddapah (1915), p. 30 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

96. Gopalan, History of the Pallavas (1928), p. 145 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

97. C. F. Brackenbury, Madras District Gazetteers: Cuddapah (1915), p. 27 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

98. Brackenbury, Cuddapah (1915), p. 33 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

99. Sircar, Successors of the Satavahanas (1939), p. 185 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

100. Bühler, “A Prakrit Grant of the Pallava King Sivaskandavarman” (1892), p. 9 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

101. Hultzsch, “Pikira Grant of Simhavarman” (1906), pp. 162–163, translation (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

102. Sircar and Seshadri Sastri, “Vunna Guravayapalem Plates” (EI XXXII), p. 97, text (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

103. Gopalan, History of the Pallavas (1928), p. 38 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

104. Krishnamacharlu, “Vilavatti Grant” (1938), p. 298 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

105. Sircar, Successors of the Satavahanas (1939), p. 205 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

106. Desai, “Reyuru Grant” (EI XXIX), p. 93 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

107. Krishnamacharlu, “Vilavatti Grant” (1938), p. 297 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

108. Desai, “Reyuru Grant” (EI XXIX), p. 90 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

109. James Burgess, The Buddhist Stupas of Amaravati and Jaggayyapeta (1887), p. 106 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

110. Jouveau-Dubreuil, The Pallavas (1917), p. 11 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

111. Jouveau-Dubreuil, The Pallavas (1917), pp. 30, 32 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

112. Jouveau-Dubreuil, The Pallavas (1917), p. 33 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

113. R. Gopalan, History of the Pallavas of Kanchi (1928), p. 8 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

114. Gopalan, History of the Pallavas (1928), p. 35 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

115. Gopalan, History of the Pallavas (1928), p. 68 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

116. Sircar, Successors of the Satavahanas (1939), pp. 181–182 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

117. Hultzsch, “Chendalur Plates of Kumaravishnu II” (1906), p. 234 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

118. Gopalan, History of the Pallavas (1928), p. 48 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

119. Gopalan, History of the Pallavas (1928), p. 60 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

120. Sircar, Successors of the Satavahanas (1939), p. 169 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

121. Gopalan, History of the Pallavas (1928), p. 39 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

122. Jouveau-Dubreuil, The Pallavas (1917), p. 14 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

123. Sircar, Successors of the Satavahanas (1939), pp. 166–167 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

124. Sircar, Successors of the Satavahanas (1939), p. 168 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

125. Sircar, Successors of the Satavahanas (1939), p. 194 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

126. G. Jouveau-Dubreuil, Ancient History of the Deccan (1920), pp. 66–67 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

127. Jouveau-Dubreuil, Ancient History of the Deccan (1920), p. 68 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

128. Sircar, Successors of the Satavahanas (1939), p. 180 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

129. Butterworth and Venugopaul Chetty, Nellore District Inscriptions (1905), p. 429, Gudur No. 54 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

130. Gazetteer of the Nellore District (1942), p. 34 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²