Salankayanas of Vengi

The Salankayanas ruled Vengi, the country between the lower Krishna and the Godavari, in the 4th and 5th centuries CE. Their capital was Vengipura, generally identified with the village of Pedavegi, a few miles north of Eluru (Ellore).¹² They came after the Ikshvakus and the Brihatphalayanas in the Krishna valley and before the Vishnukundins.³⁴

Almost all that is known of them comes from seven copper-plate grants: two in Prakrit and five in Sanskrit.⁵⁶ They were issued from Vengipura and record gifts of land to Brahmins and to a temple.⁵⁶ K. R. Subramanian observed in 1932, when fewer grants were known, that the dynasty’s history had to be rebuilt from about half a dozen copper-plate charters.⁷

How the dynasty was discovered

The first Salankayana grant came to notice in 1840. Walter Elliot described in the Madras Journal a set of copper plates said to have been found in the Kolleru lake.⁸⁹ He showed that they belonged to a dynasty older than the Eastern Chalukyas.⁸⁹

A. C. Burnell called it “a yet nameless dynasty”.¹⁰ He published the grant as a specimen of the “Vengi” alphabet.¹⁰ J. F. Fleet re-edited it in 1876 as a “copper-plate grant of the kings of the Vengi country”.⁸¹⁰¹¹ The grant itself names the king’s family.¹² He is Vijaya-Nandivarman, “who belongs to the family of the Salankayanas”, eldest son of the great king Chandavarman.¹² See the Kolleru plates.

Nineteenth-century writers usually counted these kings among the Pallavas. Robert Sewell wrote in 1884 that the Chalukya Kubja Vishnuvardhana won the east coast “by his conquest of the Salankayana kings of Vengi (Pallavas)”.¹³ Walter Elliot spoke of “a people of Pallava race” ruling Vengi.⁸ The Imperial Gazetteer of 1908 still called Vengi “apparently originally a province of the Pallavas of Conjeeveram”.¹⁴

In 1908 E. Hultzsch edited a Prakrit grant of a king Devavarman, issued from Vengipura and addressed to the villagers of Elura (Eluru). He noticed that its king used nearly the same epithets as the king of the Kolleru plates. He proposed to call the family “the Salankayana Maharajas of Vengipura”.¹ See the Ellore plates of Devavarman.

The Peddavegi plates, published in Telugu in 1924 and in English by R. Subba Rao in 1926, gave four generations of kings, beginning with a Hastivarman.¹⁵¹⁶ K. V. Lakshmana Rao edited two more grants, found buried at Kanteru, six miles from Guntur. His English edition appeared in 1930, after his death.¹⁷¹⁸¹⁹ See the Kanteru plates.

D. C. Sircar drew the evidence together in the 1930s.²⁰⁵ Finally, in 1960, B. V. Krishna Rao published two grants found at Kanukollu, one of them in Prakrit, which added a second branch of the family.²¹²²

Origins and name

The name Salankayana is a gotra (clan) name, taken from a Vedic sage. Fleet noted in 1876 that the Salankayanas, as descendants of the sage Visvamitra, were “of lunar extraction”.¹¹ Burnell found the name among the gotras of the Bhrigu group and thought it “of course that of the family-priest”.⁹ Sircar counted several gotras of this name in different groups, and could not tell which of them the kings belonged to.²³²⁴

B. V. Krishna Rao compared it with other gotra names, such as Brihatphalayana and Ananda, that had become the names of dynasties.²² He thought the Salankayanas had originally been a Brahmin family.²²

Sircar also noted that two Sanskrit dictionaries give Salankayana as a name of Nandin, the bull of Shiva.²³ He thought the bull on the family’s seals might be connected with its name.²³ Subba Rao and Lakshmana Rao gave the same meaning from the dictionary Medini. Lakshmana Rao noted the crouching bull on the seal of a Kanteru grant.²⁵¹⁸²⁶

Some scholars have traced the family back to the 2nd century. Sircar identified the Salankayanas with the Salakenoi whom Ptolemy, about 140 CE, placed beyond the Maisoloi (the people of Machilipatnam). He read Ptolemy’s city of Benagouron as a corruption of Vengipura.²⁷²⁸ Subramanian thought that neither the location of the Salakenoi nor their relation to the Salankayanas could yet be fixed.⁷

Krishna Rao thought that the Salankayanas had governed Vengi in the first two centuries CE, first under the Satavahanas and then under the Ikshvakus.⁶ In his view they became independent in the second half of the 3rd century.⁶ Sircar likewise thought that the family had been subordinate to the Satavahanas.²⁹

Their relation to the Pallavas is another open question. Subba Rao listed resemblances between the two dynasties:²⁵

• Prakrit grants followed by Sanskrit ones
• a bull on the seal
• the horse sacrifice
• kings’ names ending in -varman
• similar titles²⁵

Subba Rao concluded that they “were closely related”, and perhaps intermarried, but independent of each other.²⁵ Sewell’s chronology of 1932 took them to be probably descended from the Andhras (the Satavahanas), keeping some local power in Vengi.³⁰

Territory and the capital

Vengipura is identified with Pedda-Vegi (Pedavegi). E. Hultzsch was shown a mound there in 1902 as the site of the temple of Chitrarathasvamin, the family god of the Salankayanas. Elura, the village addressed in Devavarman’s grant, is Eluru, seven miles away.¹ See Vengi for the ruins and the later history of the site.

Subba Rao described the kingdom as made up of two districts named in the grants.²⁵³¹ One was the Vengi district round the capital.²⁵³¹ The other was the Gudrahara (Kudrahara or Kuduhara) district, whose chief town he placed near Machilipatnam (then Masulipatam).²⁵³¹

Subba Rao concluded that the kingdom covered “the modern districts of West Godavari and Krishna”.²⁵³² He also called it the country between the Godavari in the north and the Krishna in the south.²⁵³² Subramanian described it in the same way.³³

K. V. Lakshmana Rao drew it more narrowly.³⁴³⁵ He thought the kingdom “could not have been more extensive than an average modern district”.³⁴³⁵ In his view the Vengi district covered the taluks of Eluru, Yernagudem and Bhimavaram.³⁴³⁵ Kudrahara covered the taluks of Divi (Avanigadda), Bandar, Kaikalur and Gudivada.³⁴³⁵

The place of Kudrahara is disputed.³⁶ Dubreuil put it round Machilipatnam, the old home of the Brihatphalayanas.³⁶ Krishna Rao took Kudrahara and Gudrahara to be early forms of the name Gudivada.³⁷ Subba Rao reported both views.³²

Sircar thought the kingdom grew. He read the Kanteru grants as showing that the later Salankayanas held much land.³ This land had once been ruled by the Ikshvakus, the Brihatphalayanas and the Pallavas.³ He noted that a Pallava king, Simhavarman, gave a village in a district called Vengorashtra. He suggested that this was the southern fringe of the Vengi country.³⁸ But he found no evidence that the Pallavas ever held the city of Vengi.³⁸

Rulers

Seven kings are known, in this order according to their grants:⁵²²

• Devavarman, known from the Prakrit Ellore plates of his 13th year. He calls himself a performer of the horse sacrifice. His place in the family is unknown.³⁹⁴⁰
• Hastivarman (Hastivarman I), the first king in both long genealogies, praised for victories in many battles.⁴¹²²
• Nandivarman I, his son. His Prakrit grant of his 14th year was found at Kanukollu.⁴²²²
• Hastivarman II and Chandavarman, sons of Nandivarman I. Both are called Maharaja. Neither has left a grant of his own.²²
• Nandivarman II, the eldest son of Chandavarman, the issuer of the Kolleru plates of his 7th year and the Peddavegi plates of his 10th, and probably of a Kanteru grant.¹²⁴¹⁴³
• Skandavarman, son of Hastivarman II, known from two Sanskrit grants of his first year, from Kanukollu and Kanteru.²²⁴⁴

An eighth name, a crown prince Vijaya-Buddhavarman, appeared in many accounts from Dubreuil’s in 1920 onwards. Sircar showed that he was a Pallava prince (see below).⁴⁵⁴⁶

Administration

The grants are royal orders, so they name officials. The Kolleru and Peddavegi plates of Nandivarman II charge the desadhipatis, ayuktakas, vallabhas and royal agents (rajapurushas) with protecting the grant. Sircar inferred that the kingdom was divided into provinces (desas) under governors, with ayuktakas in charge of smaller districts.⁴⁷¹² The Kanteru grant of Skandavarman also names vishayapatis, heads of districts (vishayas).⁴⁴

Each grant names an executor (ajnapti).⁴⁸⁴⁹⁵⁰ For Nandivarman I it was Hatthisami (Hastisvamin), and for Nandivarman II, in two grants, the Bhojaka of Mulakura.⁴⁸⁴⁹⁵⁰ The Peddavegi plates were written by Katikuri, a privy officer (rahasyadhikrita).⁵¹

The grants are addressed to the villagers through their headman, called muluda or mutuda.⁴⁰⁵² Hultzsch thought this a Dravidian word. Sircar thought it probably meant the head of the village.⁴⁰⁵² The epithet of Chandavarman, to whom subordinate rulers (samantas) bowed, suggested to Sircar that the kings had vassals.⁵³

Taxes and revenue

The grants do not describe the revenue system, but their lists of exemptions show what a village normally owed. Nandivarman I’s Kanukollu grant frees the village from the entry of royal officers, from salt-digging and from the district police. It also frees it from supplying water-pots, cooked rice, cots, grass, vegetables, flowers, fruit, curds, milk, ghee and buttermilk.⁴⁸

Devavarman exempted his donee “with all immunities”.⁴⁰ The Kolleru village was to be “treated with immunity from all taxation” and protected by the king’s officers.¹² Skandavarman’s Kanukollu grant exempted the village from all taxes, and officials were told to leave it alone.⁵⁴

Land was measured in nivartanas (land measures).⁵⁵ Sircar noted that ancient authorities disagree about its size.⁵⁵ So the 32 nivartanas of the Peddavegi grant could be anything from about 23 to about 95 acres.⁵⁵

Law and order

The grants threaten anyone who breaks them. Nandivarman I’s Kanukollu grant warns that whoever transgresses the order, or troubles the donees, will incur the king’s wrath. The Eluru, Kolleru, Peddavegi and Kanukollu grants end with the usual Sanskrit verses cursing those who take back land.^4248401241 One of the exemptions in the Kanukollu grant of Nandivarman I is rendered by Krishna Rao as freedom from interference by the district police.⁴⁸

Army

The sources say little about warfare. The Peddavegi and Kanukollu plates praise Hastivarman I for victories in many battles.⁴¹⁵⁴ Sircar thought these might include his fight with Samudragupta.⁵³ The Peddavegi plates also describe Chandavarman as a king “who by his prowess controlled several vassals”.⁴¹ Sircar took Devavarman’s horse sacrifice as a sign of success against the Pallavas, who had held the Andhra country.⁵⁶ Krishna Rao described Kanukollu as a walled town, with a ruined mud fort.²¹

Economy and trade

The grants show an agrarian kingdom. Its donees held land worked by others.⁴⁰ Devavarman’s donee received house sites for the men “who receive half the crop” and for his door-keepers.⁴⁰ The temple land of the Peddavegi grant was to be worked by cowherds (vrajapalakas).⁴¹⁵⁵

Krishna Rao thought Kanukollu had stood on a road from a port near the northern mouth of the Krishna, by way of Gudivada, to Vengipura.²¹ Subba Rao wrote that the Kudrahara district was “famous as a great centre of trade”. He linked it with the ports Ptolemy names on this coast, Maisolos, Kontakossyla and Koddura, from which ships sailed to Southeast Asia.³¹

Coins

No coins of the Salankayanas are described in the sources used for this page. Krishna Rao recorded that coins of Chandavarman had been found, without giving details.²² He was told that gold and lead coins had been picked up at Kanukollu, though the finders kept them secret or destroyed them.²¹

Social life

Most grants were made to Brahmins. Devavarman gave land and house sites to Ganasarman of the Babhura gotra. Nandivarman II gave a whole village to 157 Brahmins of various gotras living in the agrahara (village granted to Brahmins) of Kuravaka. Both the Kanteru grants went to Brahmins of the Maudgalya gotra.^40125744

Nandivarman I’s Kanukollu grant raises a question about caste.⁶⁵⁸ It gave a village to a Brahmin learned in the four Vedas of the Rathakara (chariot-maker) community. Krishna Rao thought it showed that Rathakaras of the time enjoyed Vedic rights. He compared the Visva-Brahmanas of the Krishna and Godavari districts, artisans who call themselves Rathakaras. Sircar thought Rathakara was the name of a village, not a caste.⁶⁵⁸

Religion

Sircar noted in 1939 that all the Salankayana kings then known called themselves devotees of Chitrarathasvamin, the family god.²⁴ K. V. Lakshmana Rao, and B. V. Krishna Rao after him, took Chitrarathasvamin to be the sun god, since Chitraratha is a name of the sun. Lakshmana Rao saw a sign of the sun on the seal of a Kanteru grant. Sircar thought Chitrarathasvamin more likely a form of Shiva.^59222455

Hultzsch was shown the site of his temple at Pedda-Vegi.¹ Subba Rao was shown a ruined shrine said to be his at Chinavegi.⁶⁰

The family’s worship changed over time. Devavarman calls himself a devotee of Mahesvara (Shiva) and claims the horse sacrifice. The bull on the seals, and names such as Nandivarman and Skandavarman, suggested to Sircar that the family was Shaiva.⁴⁰²⁴ Nandivarman II calls himself parama-bhagavata and gave land to the god Vishnugrihasvamin. Sircar concluded that he had become a Vaishnava. Lakshmana Rao argued that bhagavata could also describe a worshipper of Shiva.⁵⁵⁶¹

Sewell wrote in 1884 that “the Vengi kings were Buddhists”, and that the Chalukya conquest was a triumph of Brahmanism over Buddhism.¹³ The grants do not support this. Subba Rao concluded that the Salankayana kings were not Buddhists, though they may have tolerated the Buddhists among their subjects.⁶²

Art and architecture

No building of the Salankayanas has been identified. Sewell’s list of 1882 describes ruined temples and mounds at Pedda Vegi, Chinna Vegi and Dendaluru, which Walter Elliot thought covered the old city.⁶³ The only structure tied to the dynasty by the sources is the mound shown to Hultzsch as the site of the temple of Chitrarathasvamin.¹ See Vengi.

Decline and successors

The Vishnukundins followed the Salankayanas in Vengi. They ruled from Lendulura, identified with Denduluru near Vengipura.⁴ Dubreuil thought that the Vishnukundins conquered the Salankayana kingdom in the 5th century with Vakataka help.⁴⁵

Subba Rao suggested that Madhavavarman I or his son defeated Nandivarman II or his brother about 450.⁶⁴ He recorded the tradition that Madhavavarman, married to a Vakataka princess, uprooted the Salankayanas with Vakataka help.⁶⁴ Sewell’s chronology also has the Vakataka king install the Vishnukundin Madhava in Vengi in place of the Salankayanas.⁶⁵

Subramanian thought that the Pallavas first invaded the kingdom from the south, and that it then passed to the Vishnukundins.⁶⁶ Older works skipped the Vishnukundins. Burnell had the Vengi dynasty supplanted directly by the Chalukyas early in the 7th century.⁶⁷ Sewell in 1884 had Kubja Vishnuvardhana dethrone “the Salankayana sovereign of Vengi”.⁶⁸

Evidence and disagreements

Chronology

No Salankayana grant is dated in an era. Their dates rest on the style of the letters, on counting generations, and on the identification of Hastivarman with Samudragupta’s opponent.²⁸⁶⁶

Source	Date proposed
Burnell, as quoted by Fleet (1876)69	Kolleru plates about the 4th century
Sewell (1884)70	Reports Burnell as giving the 5th century for the Kolleru plates
Bühler (1904)71	The plates “used to be assigned to the 4th century”; date uncertain
Dubreuil (1920)45	Devavarman, Chandavarman and Nandivarman between about 350 and 450, after Samudragupta’s invasion
Subba Rao (1926)644	Hastivarman in the first half of the 4th century; Nandivarman II to about 440; Vishnukundin conquest about 450
Sewell (1932)30	About the 4th century
Lakshmana Rao (1930)72	Hastivarman about 350, Devavarman about 375, Chandavarman about 450, Skandavarman about 500
Subramanian (1932)3366	About 275–450; Devavarman in the last quarter of the 3rd century, Hastivarman about 340
Sircar (1939)2	Devavarman about 320–345 to Skandavarman about 445–470
Krishna Rao (1960)6	Nandivarman I at the close of the 3rd century
Sircar (1960)6	Nandivarman I and Devavarman about the middle of the 4th century

Hastivarman and Samudragupta

The Allahabad pillar inscription of the Gupta emperor Samudragupta names “Hastivarman of Vengi” among the kings of the south.⁷³ Sewell’s chronology of 1932 took him for a Pallava viceroy governing Vengi.⁷⁴ Subba Rao in 1926, Subramanian in 1932 and Sircar in 1939 identified him with Hastivarman I of the Peddavegi plates.¹⁶⁷⁵³⁸ Sircar’s main argument was that the Salankayanas were the only early dynasty known to have ruled from the city of Vengi.³⁸ The identification also fixes the chronology, so the dates in the table above depend partly on it.²⁸ See Hastivarman.

The Kolleru plates and the Kolleru lake

Burnell, quoting Elliot, and Elliot himself, said the Kolleru plates were found in the Kolleru lake.⁹⁸ Sewell’s list of 1882 says they were “obtained at” Pedda Vegi.⁶³ A separate question concerns Samudragupta’s campaign. Kielhorn’s identification of Kaurala, a kingdom named in the Allahabad inscription, with the country of the Kolleru lake was widely accepted. Dubreuil rejected it in 1920, but Sewell’s chronology of 1932 still has Samudragupta take the country of the Kolleru lake.⁷⁶⁷⁴

Buddhavarman: a prince based on a misreading

Fleet mentioned in 1876 a second, Prakrit grant in Elliot’s facsimiles. He thought it named “Vijayanandivarma and his Yuvamaharaja”, whose name he read as Vijayatungavarma or Vijayabuddhavarma.¹¹⁶⁹ Dubreuil, Lakshmana Rao and Subba Rao built a Salankayana prince Buddhavarman on this note.⁴⁵¹⁶¹⁹

Sircar showed in 1939 that the grant is that of the Pallava queen Charudevi.⁴⁶⁵ Fleet had published it himself in a later volume of the Indian Antiquary, and Hultzsch re-edited it in Epigraphia Indica VIII. Its king is the Pallava Skandavarman and its crown prince the Pallava Buddhavarman.⁴⁶⁵ Sewell had already noted in 1884 that this Pallava grant could not be related to the Salankayana king.⁷⁷

Devavarman and Skandavarman

Neither king appears in the long genealogies of the Peddavegi plates. Scholars have placed Devavarman before Hastivarman, as his son, or after Nandivarman I.⁴³¹⁶⁶ Skandavarman was long taken for a younger brother or a successor of Nandivarman II.¹⁷⁴³⁶⁶ In 1960 the Kanukollu plates showed him to be a son of Hastivarman II and a cousin of Nandivarman II.²² See Devavarman and Skandavarman.

The Komarti Chandavarman

Hultzsch suggested that the Chandavarman of the Komarti plates from Ganjam was the Salankayana father of Nandivarman II.⁷⁸³⁰ Sewell’s chronology of 1932 calls him a Salankayana.³⁰ Sircar argued that he was a king of Kalinga ruling from Simhapura.⁷⁹⁸⁰ See Chandavarman.

Footnotes

1. Hultzsch, “Plates of Vijaya-Devavarman” (1908), p. 58 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

2. Sircar, Successors of the Satavahanas (1939), p. 73, chronological chart (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

3. Sircar, Successors of the Satavahanas (1939), p. 4 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

4. Subba Rao, “Pedavegi Copper-plates” (1926), p. 99 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

5. Sircar, Successors of the Satavahanas (1939), p. 68 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

6. Krishna Rao, “Two Salankayana Charters from Kanukollu” (1960), p. 3, with D. C. Sircar’s editorial notes (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹

7. Subramanian, Buddhist Remains in Andhra (1932), p. 89 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

8. Walter Elliot, Coins of Southern India (1886), p. 39 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

9. Burnell, Elements of South-Indian Palaeography (1878), p. 135, Appendix C, notes 1 and 3 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

10. Burnell, Elements of South-Indian Palaeography (1878), p. 16 and note 1 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

11. J. F. Fleet, “Sanskrit and Old-Canarese Inscriptions, No. XVIII”, Indian Antiquary V (1876), p. 175 and notes (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

12. Fleet, “Sanskrit and Old-Canarese Inscriptions, No. XVIII” (1876), p. 177, translation (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷

13. Robert Sewell, Lists of Inscriptions, and Sketch of the Dynasties of Southern India (1884), p. 148 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

14. Imperial Gazetteer of India: Madras, Vol. I (1908), p. 193 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

15. R. Subba Rao, “Pedavegi Copper-plates of Nandivarman II”, Journal of the Andhra Historical Research Society I, pt. 2 (1926), p. 92 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

16. Subba Rao, “Pedavegi Copper-plates” (1926), p. 94 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

17. Subba Rao, “Pedavegi Copper-plates” (1926), p. 93 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

18. K. V. Lakshmana Rao, “Two Copper-plate Grants of the Salankayanas of Vengi”, Journal of the Andhra Historical Research Society V, pt. 1 (1930), p. 21 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

19. Sircar, Successors of the Satavahanas (1939), p. 65 and note 1 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

20. Sircar, Successors of the Satavahanas (1939), p. 63 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

21. B. V. Krishna Rao, “Two Salankayana Charters from Kanukollu”, Epigraphia Indica XXXI (1955–56, publ. 1960), p. 1 and note 1 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

22. Krishna Rao, “Two Salankayana Charters from Kanukollu” (1960), p. 8 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹ ↩¹⁰ ↩¹¹

23. Sircar, Successors of the Satavahanas (1939), p. 82 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

24. Sircar, Successors of the Satavahanas (1939), p. 83 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

25. Subba Rao, “Pedavegi Copper-plates” (1926), pp. 95–96 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹

26. K. V. Lakshmana Rao, “Two Copper-plate Grants of the Salankayanas of Vengi”, Journal of the Andhra Historical Research Society V, pt. 1 (1930), p. 24 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

27. Sircar, Successors of the Satavahanas (1939), p. 71 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

28. Sircar, Successors of the Satavahanas (1939), p. 72 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

29. D. C. Sircar, The Successors of the Satavahanas in Lower Deccan (1939), p. 3 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

30. Sewell and Aiyangar, Historical Inscriptions of Southern India (1932), p. 18 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

31. Subba Rao, “Pedavegi Copper-plates” (1926), p. 100 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

32. Subba Rao, “Pedavegi Copper-plates” (1926), p. 98 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

33. K. R. Subramanian, Buddhist Remains in Andhra and the History of Andhra between 225 and 610 A.D. (1932), p. 88 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

34. K. V. Lakshmana Rao, “Two Copper-plate Grants of the Salankayanas of Vengi”, Journal of the Andhra Historical Research Society V, pt. 1 (1930), p. 28 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

35. K. V. Lakshmana Rao, “Two Copper-plate Grants of the Salankayanas of Vengi”, Journal of the Andhra Historical Research Society V, pt. 1 (1930), p. 29 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

36. Jouveau-Dubreuil, Ancient History of the Deccan (1920), pp. 84–85 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

37. Krishna Rao, “Two Salankayana Charters from Kanukollu” (1960), p. 9 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

38. Sircar, Successors of the Satavahanas (1939), p. 70 and notes (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

39. E. Hultzsch, “Plates of Vijaya-Devavarman”, Epigraphia Indica IX (1907–08), p. 57 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

40. Hultzsch, “Plates of Vijaya-Devavarman” (1908), p. 59, text, translation and notes (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹

41. Subba Rao, “Pedavegi Copper-plates” (1926), p. 105, translation (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

42. Krishna Rao, “Two Salankayana Charters from Kanukollu” (1960), p. 2 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

43. Sircar, Successors of the Satavahanas (1939), p. 69 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

44. Sircar, Successors of the Satavahanas (1939), p. 96 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

45. Jouveau-Dubreuil, Ancient History of the Deccan (1920), p. 89 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

46. Sircar, Successors of the Satavahanas (1939), pp. 66–67 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

47. Sircar, Successors of the Satavahanas (1939), p. 93 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

48. Krishna Rao, “Two Salankayana Charters from Kanukollu” (1960), p. 7, translation (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

49. Sircar, Successors of the Satavahanas (1939), p. 94 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

50. Subba Rao, “Pedavegi Copper-plates” (1926), p. 104, note 11 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

51. Sircar, Successors of the Satavahanas (1939), p. 95 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

52. Sircar, Successors of the Satavahanas (1939), p. 90 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

53. Sircar, Successors of the Satavahanas (1939), p. 91 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

54. Krishna Rao, “Two Salankayana Charters from Kanukollu” (1960), p. 10, translation (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

55. Sircar, Successors of the Satavahanas (1939), p. 84 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

56. Sircar, Successors of the Satavahanas (1939), p. 86 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

57. Sircar, Successors of the Satavahanas (1939), p. 92 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

58. Krishna Rao, “Two Salankayana Charters from Kanukollu” (1960), p. 4 and note 1 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

59. K. V. Lakshmana Rao, “Two Copper-plate Grants of the Salankayanas of Vengi”, Journal of the Andhra Historical Research Society V, pt. 1 (1930), p. 23 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

60. Subba Rao, “Pedavegi Copper-plates” (1926), p. 97 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

61. Sircar, Successors of the Satavahanas (1939), p. 85 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

62. Subba Rao, “Pedavegi Copper-plates” (1926), p. 101 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

63. Robert Sewell, Lists of the Antiquarian Remains in the Presidency of Madras, Vol. I (1882), p. 36 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

64. Subba Rao, “Pedavegi Copper-plates” (1926), p. 95 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

65. Sewell and Aiyangar, Historical Inscriptions of Southern India (1932), p. 21 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

66. Subramanian, Buddhist Remains in Andhra (1932), p. 91 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

67. A. C. Burnell, Elements of South-Indian Palaeography (2nd ed., 1878), p. 15 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

68. Sewell, Lists of Inscriptions, and Sketch of the Dynasties (1884), p. 151 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

69. Fleet, “Sanskrit and Old-Canarese Inscriptions, No. XVIII” (1876), p. 176 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

70. Sewell, Lists of Inscriptions, and Sketch of the Dynasties (1884), p. 240 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

71. Georg Bühler, Indian Paleography (1904), p. 65 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

72. K. V. Lakshmana Rao, “Two Copper-plate Grants of the Salankayanas of Vengi”, Journal of the Andhra Historical Research Society V, pt. 1 (1930), pp. 26–27 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

73. Jouveau-Dubreuil, Ancient History of the Deccan (1920), p. 61 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

74. Robert Sewell and S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar, The Historical Inscriptions of Southern India (1932), p. 17 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

75. Subramanian, Buddhist Remains in Andhra (1932), p. 90 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

76. G. Jouveau-Dubreuil, Ancient History of the Deccan (1920), p. 59, note 3 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

77. Sewell, Lists of Inscriptions, and Sketch of the Dynasties (1884), p. 211 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

78. Sircar, Successors of the Satavahanas (1939), p. 74 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

79. Sircar, Successors of the Satavahanas (1939), p. 75 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

80. Sircar, Successors of the Satavahanas (1939), pp. 76–77 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩