Eastern Gangas of Kalinga · Telugu History

Photograph of a copper-plate seal seen obliquely from the side: a seated bull in relief standing up from a flat, round base. · G. S. Gai (article), Epigraphia Indica (Government of India) (opens in a new tab) · Public domain in India

The Eastern Gangas were the kings of Kalinga, the coastal country north of the Godavari, from about the 6th century until 1434. Their early copper-plate grants are issued from Kalinganagara.¹² G. V. Ramamurti identified this city in 1897 with Mukhalingam on the Vamsadhara, now in the Srikakulam district.¹²

The old Ganjam and Visakhapatnam (then Vizagapatam) districts, the northernmost part of the Telugu country, were the centre of their kingdom for most of its history.³⁴⁵ The temples of Mukhalingam, Srikurmam and Simhachalam hold hundreds of their inscriptions, many of them in Telugu.³⁴⁵

Anantavarman Chodaganga was a grandson of the Chola-Chalukya emperor Kulottunga I.⁶⁷ His grants claim wars from the Ganges to the Godavari.⁶⁷ The later kings, who “extended their dominions far to the north and south”, fought the Kakatiyas along the Godavari.⁶⁷

The dynasty in brief

The Imperial Gazetteer (1908) summed up what was then known.⁸ It said that the copper-plate grants of the Eastern Gangas “are dated in an era whose starting-point has yet to be settled”.⁸ “The earliest of these kings is believed to belong to the seventh century.”⁸ Later records of the family “state that the Gangas of Kalinga were the cousins of the Western Gangas of Mysore”.⁸

The Vizagapatam district gazetteer of 1907 separated the early Ganga kings, known from grants in an era of unknown starting point, from “a later line of the same name”.³⁶ This later line ruled from Kalinganagara from the end of the 9th century and was “apparently of the same family”.³⁶ The gazetteer singled out Rajaraja I, who came to the throne in 1070–71.³⁶ Under his son Anantavarman Chodaganga, “this family reached the zenith of its power”.³⁶

The Imperial Gazetteer says that the Gangas “appear to have held Kalinga until a comparatively late period, though defeated by the Gajapatis in the fifteenth century”.⁸

Kalinga and Kalinganagara

According to the Vizagapatam gazetteer, the grants of the early Gangas call the kings “of the Ganga family, lords of Kalinga”.³ They call them worshippers of the Gokarnasvami (Siva) “on the Mahendragiri hill in Ganjam (where the ruins of cyclopean shrines still stand), and as ruling from Kalinganagara”.³

A typical grant, the Alamanda plates, opens “From the victorious residence Kalinganagara, which resembles the city of the gods”.⁹ It calls the city pleasant “(on account of the simultaneous existence) of the comforts of all seasons”.⁹ See Mahendragiri.

Where Kalinganagara lay was long disputed. Older writers put the capital at Kalingapatnam, at the mouth of the Vamsadhara, and E. Hultzsch still thought so in 1895.¹⁰¹¹ Two years later Ramamurti argued that the seaport had no ancient remains fit for a capital.¹²¹ He argued that the site between Mukhalingam and Nagarakatakam, with its three old Siva temples and two miles of ruins, “represents the ancient capital of Kalinga”.¹²¹

The Imperial Gazetteer accepted Mukhalingam, “and not Calingapatam or Chicacole, as was once supposed”.² Some grants were issued elsewhere.¹³¹⁴ The Jirjingi plates came from Dantapura.¹³ According to Robert Sewell, a grant of Vajrahasta of about 1045 came from the same city.¹⁴ See Kalingapatnam and the temples of Mukhalingam.

The early Gangas and their grants

Most of the early grants come from the Srikakulam country. When R. K. Ghoshal re-edited it in 1940, the oldest known was the grant of Indravarman, lord of Trikalinga, of the year 39.¹⁵¹³ It was found at Jirjingi near Tekkali.¹⁵¹³ The Achyutapuram plates of Indravarman alias Rajasimha, of the year 87, were found near Mukhalingam.¹⁶

A hoard of six sets of plates was dug up at Srikakulam (then Chicacole).¹⁰¹⁷¹⁸¹⁹²⁰ It included these grants:¹⁰¹⁷¹⁸¹⁹²⁰

grants of the Ganga king Indravarman, of the years 128 and 146¹⁰¹⁷¹⁸¹⁹²⁰
a grant of Devendravarman son of Anantavarman, of the year 51¹⁰¹⁷¹⁸¹⁹²⁰
a grant of Satyavarman¹⁰¹⁷¹⁸¹⁹²⁰
the grant of Devendravarman son of Gunarnava, of the year 183²⁰

The Alamanda plates of Anantavarman, son of Rajendravarman, come from the Vizianagaram country.²¹ They are dated “in the year three hundred and four of the prosperous and victorious reign of the G[a]ngeya race”.²¹ The language of the grants is Sanskrit, mostly in prose.¹⁶²² Their script is the box-headed alphabet that G. H. Ojha called the Kalinga script.¹⁶²² See the lesson Kalinga script and Odia.

J. F. Fleet edited several of the Chicacole grants in 1884.²³ He noted that the early grants spell the family name Gānga, with a long vowel, and the later ones Ganga.²³ He quoted a later grant’s story of its origin.²³ In it the childless king Turvasu prayed to the river Ganga “and obtained a son, the unconquerable Gangeya”.²³ The grant goes on: “and, commencing from that time, the succession of his descendants has been victorious in the world under the name of the lineage of the Ganga”.²³

The Ganga era

The early grants count their years in the reign, or in some cases in the reign of the Gangeya line.²⁴²⁵ They do not say when the count began, and few of their dates contain details that can be checked.²⁴²⁵ Scholars have proposed very different starting points:

Fleet, in 1884, dated the grants of Indravarman on historical and palaeographical (handwriting) grounds to about 657–661, and the grant of the year 254 to about 774–75.¹⁹
Hultzsch, in 1895, refused to guess.¹¹
Sewell, in 1932, took the era to begin with the accession of a king Kamarnava in 877–78.²⁶²⁷²⁸ On this count the year 87 fell in about 964–65 and the year 183 in 1061.²⁶²⁷²⁸
V. V. Mirashi, in 1942, rejected a proposal by R. C. Majumdar to place the start between 550 and 557.²⁵²⁹ From the dates that can be checked, he fixed it on 14 March 498.²⁵²⁹ In a further note he found that a newly published date of the year 358 also fitted this start and none of the others.²⁵²⁹³⁰

This page and the inscription pages give dates on Mirashi’s start year. On it the Jirjingi grant of the year 39 dates from about 537.³¹ Mirashi thought the era might mark the founding of a new kingdom in Kalinga as the power of the Vakatakas declined at the end of the 5th century.³¹ But he called this a conjecture (a guess).³¹

Vengi, the Cholas and the later Gangas

The Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, south of the Godavari, “appear to have constantly interfered in the affairs of Kalinga”.³ The Vizagapatam gazetteer says that the Chola king Rajaraja I overthrew the Eastern Chalukya Vimaladitya in 999–1000.³ It says he set up a pillar of victory on Mahendragiri.³

The Imperial Gazetteer adds that “about the time of the Chola conquest the line of the later Ganga kings of Kalinga comes into view”.⁷ These kings “ruled, first no doubt as Chola feudatories, but later as independent sovereigns, for the next four centuries”.⁷ See the Eastern Chalukyas.

The first exactly dated event of this line is the coronation of Vajrahasta III, on 3 May 1038.³² It is recorded in his Nadagam plates of 1058.³² His son Rajaraja I married Rajasundari.³³ Sewell took her to be a daughter of Kulottunga I.³³

Rajaraja’s general Vanapati claimed victories over the Chola king, the Utkala and the kings of Vengi in the Dirghasi inscription of 1075–76.³⁴ The grants of Rajaraja’s son say that Rajaraja sheltered the aged Eastern Chalukya Vijayaditya VII “for a long time in the western region”.³⁵³⁶

Anantavarman Chodaganga

Anantavarman Chodaganga was crowned in 1078, though his own inscriptions count his reign from about 1075.³³³⁷³⁸ He was still reigning in his seventy-second year.³³³⁷³⁸ His grants claim that he restored the kings of Vengi and Orissa and fought from the Ganges to the Godavari.⁶

In his reign the armies of his grandfather Kulottunga I twice invaded Kalinga, about 1090 and about 1111–12 in Sewell’s dating.³⁹⁴⁰ The general Karunakara led the second campaign.³⁹⁴⁰⁴¹ It is the subject of the Tamil poem Kalingattupparani, which does not name the Kalinga king.⁴¹

His inscriptions are found at Mukhalingam, Srikurmam, Arasavalli, Bhogapuram and Visakhapatnam.⁵³⁷⁴²⁴³⁴⁴ South of the Godavari they are found at Draksharama, where three of his queens gave lamps to the temple in 1128.⁴⁴

W. W. Hunter’s palm-leaf chronicle of Orissa remembers him as Chorganga, founder of the Gangetic line in Orissa.⁴⁵ But it dates his reign to 1132–1152.⁴⁵ See Anantavarman Chodaganga.

The Kakatiyas and the Godavari

After Chodaganga, inscriptions of his son Aniyanka-Bhima and of a grandson Rajaraja II appear at Draksharama.⁴⁶⁴⁷ In the 13th century the Gangas and the Kakatiyas fought over the coast between the Godavari and the Krishna. P. V. Parabrahma Sastry pieced the war together from Kakatiya and Ganga records.⁴⁸⁴⁹

In his account, Ganapatideva’s generals invaded Kalinga about 1212 and reached as far as the Aska country in Ganjam.⁴⁸⁴⁹ But the Ganga king Anangabhima III soon drove them back across the Godavari.⁴⁸⁴⁹ An inscription of his eighth regnal year, 1217–18, at Draksharama claims that he saved his country.⁴⁸⁴⁹ Records of his reign there of 1230 and 1233 credit his general Jasrajaka with conquering Vengi.⁴⁸⁴⁹

Parabrahma Sastry placed the Kakatiya conquest of the Kolanu region and of Vengi shortly before 1240.⁵⁰ He cited an inscription of 1237 of a Kakatiya general at Draksharama.⁵⁰ He read the Nandaluru inscription of 1257 as a defence against an invasion by the Ganga king Narasimha.⁵⁰⁵¹ In that inscription the Telugu Choda Manumasiddhi II claims to have chased the Kalinga king back across the Godavari.⁵⁰⁵¹

He also described a gap of about sixteen years in the Kakatiya records of the Godavari region.⁵⁰⁵¹ It ended when Rudramadevi’s generals drove back the army of Bhanudeva I, son of Narasimha I, who had invaded Vengi in 1274.⁵⁰⁵¹ After that the Godavari was the boundary of the two kingdoms.⁵⁰⁵¹

The Godavari district gazetteer (1907) follows a Mackenzie manuscript about the viceroys (governors) of the Kakatiya king Prataparudra at Bendapudi, in the Tuni division.⁵²⁵³ It says they “fell foul of the ‘Raja of Cuttack’ (the Ganga king of Kalinga)”.⁵²⁵³ Pedda Malla Razu had kidnapped the bride of one of that king’s relatives as she was passing through the district.⁵²⁵³ “The Ganga king sent an expedition to revenge the affront; and, after a long siege, Bendapudi was taken and the two brothers were captured and beheaded.”⁵²⁵³

Simhachalam, Srikurmam and the north

The Vizagapatam gazetteer credits Narasimha I with building the central shrine, halls and enclosing verandah of the Simhachalam temple in black stone in 1267–68.⁵⁴ At Srikurmam, chiefs who traced their descent from the Eastern Chalukyas served Narasimha I as ministers and Bhanudeva II as vassals.⁵⁵⁵⁶⁵⁷ The Madhva teacher Naraharitirtha appears to have governed the Kalinga country under Narasimha II.⁵⁵⁵⁶⁵⁷ See the Srikurmam temple, the inscriptions of the Chalukya chiefs and the inscription of Naraharitirtha.

The gazetteer also notes several inscriptions at Simhachalam of “a line of chiefs called the Matsyas of Oddavadi”.⁶ According to copper plates found at Dibbida, these chiefs descended from a fish and married into the royal house of Orissa.⁶ They “seem to have become independent there in the thirteenth century”.⁶ V. Rangacharya summarised a grant of the Matsya king Arjuna of 6 April 1269.⁵⁸

The end

The gazetteer says that the power of the later Gangas was waning in the time of Narasimha I.⁵⁴ “Narasimha I and two of his successors are mentioned as having had to resist attacks from the Muhammadans of Bengal and Delhi.”⁵⁴ The gazetteer lists the troubles that followed:⁵⁴

“Firoz Shah of Delhi (1351-88) invaded Orissa”⁵⁴
“other Musalman raids into that country took place”⁵⁴
“the Reddi kings of Kondavidu in Guntur district penetrated to Simhachalam (where stands an inscription of one of them dated 1385-86)”⁵⁴

On the death of the Ganga king Banudeva IV, his minister usurped (seized) the throne.⁵⁴ In 1434-35 he founded the Gajapati (‘lords of elephants’) dynasty of Orissa “under the title of Pratapa Kapilasvara”.⁵⁴ The Godavari gazetteer gives the year as 1434.⁵⁹ It calls Kapilesvara “the minister of the last Ganga king of that country”.⁵⁹

The Vizagapatam gazetteer adds that the new king’s capital was at Cuttack.⁵⁴ His lands stretched “from the Ganges to the Kistna”.⁵⁴ An Oriya inscription of Kapilesvara stands in the Mukhalingam temple.⁵ See the Reddis of Kondavidu.

Languages and scripts

The early grants are in Sanskrit, in the Kalinga script.¹⁶²² The Nadagam plates of 1058 are in an old Nagari alphabet.⁶⁰ But their editor noted that “the Eastern Chalukya type of the eleventh century is however more extensively in evidence here, as everywhere else in the Telugu country”.⁶⁰

The stone inscriptions of Chodaganga and his successors at Mukhalingam and Srikurmam are mostly in Telugu, or in Sanskrit and Telugu, written in Telugu characters.⁵⁶¹⁵⁵ The Dirghasi inscription of 1075–76 ends in seven lines of Telugu verse.⁶² Tamil records of Kulottunga I and of a merchant under a Ganga king Narasimha stand at Simhachalam and Visakhapatnam.⁶³⁴³

Oriya inscriptions appear later.⁶⁴⁴ South-Indian Inscriptions V (1925) printed four, from Mukhalingam and Srikurmam.⁶⁴ Volume VI (1928) printed thirty-six.⁴

W. W. Hunter observed in 1872 that Oriya had long held its own “almost to the walls of Kalingapatnam itself”.⁶⁵ The peasants of a wide strip south of the Orissa border still spoke it.⁶⁵ But “the Telugu of the courts and State schools is gradually pushing it northwards”.⁶⁵ See Language and literature.

Religion

The early kings were Saivas (worshippers of Shiva), worshippers of Gokarnasvamin on Mahendragiri.³²⁰ Their seals show the lying bull.³²⁰ According to a grant of Chodaganga, the Madhukesvara temple at Mukhalingam was founded by an early king Kamarnava.¹

The later Gangas supported the Vaishnava temples of Srikurmam and Simhachalam.⁶⁶⁵⁴⁵⁷ A Madhva teacher, Naraharitirtha, served them as governor.⁶⁶⁵⁴⁵⁷

A record of Saka 1109 (Saka is an Indian way of counting years) at Bhogapuram falls in the eleventh year of a Ganga king Anantavarmadeva.⁴² It tells of a merchant who built a Jaina temple there, the Rajaraja Jinalaya.⁴² The Imperial Gazetteer notes that inscriptions show that Mukhalingam was formerly inhabited by Buddhists.² See Religion.

Evidence and disagreements

The start of the Ganga era. Fleet (1884) placed Indravarman’s grants in about 657–661 and the grant of the year 254 in about 774–75.¹⁹ Sewell (1932) took the start as 877–78.²⁶ Majumdar put it between 550 and 557.²⁵²⁹ Mirashi (1942) fixed it in 498.²⁵²⁹
Kalinganagara. Older writers and Hultzsch in 1895 placed it at Kalingapatnam.¹⁰¹¹ Ramamurti in 1897 and the Imperial Gazetteer placed it at Mukhalingam.¹²
Chodaganga’s accession. Fleet and Sewell give his coronation as 17 February 1078.⁶⁷ From the regnal years of his inscriptions, Hultzsch and Rangacharya give about 1075.³⁸⁶⁸
The Orissa chronicle. The temple chronicle printed by Hunter dates Chorganga to 1132–1152 and credits the Jagannatha temple to Anang Bhim Deo.⁴⁵ The inscriptions put Chodaganga’s reign in 1078–1146, and the Vizagapatam gazetteer says his grants claim the temple for him.⁴⁵⁶
Rajasundari. Sewell made her a daughter of Kulottunga I.³³ Fleet thought this probable but not certain.³⁵
The Chola pillar on Mahendragiri. The Vizagapatam gazetteer gives it to Rajaraja I.³ The Imperial Gazetteer in one place gives it to Rajendra Chola.⁷
The king of the Kalingattupparani. The poem does not name him.⁴¹ Sewell identified him with Chodaganga.⁴⁰
Chodaganga’s sons. Sewell’s genealogy makes Rajaraja II and Aniyanka-Bhima brothers, both sons of Chodaganga.⁶⁹ A Draksharama record summarised by Rangacharya makes Rajaraja II the son of Aniyanka-Bhima.⁴⁷
Narasimha I. Sewell gives 1253–1256.⁶⁹ A Srikurmam record has him king by 1250–51.⁷⁰ The Vizagapatam gazetteer has him building at Simhachalam in 1267–68.⁵⁴ Hunter’s chronicle has Languliya Narsinh, 1237–1282.⁷¹
Numbering. The donor of the Nadagam plates is Vajrahasta III in one numbering and Vajrahasta V in another.⁷²⁷³ Rangacharya calls Narasimha I’s father Anangabhima II, and Parabrahma Sastry calls him Anangabhima III.⁷²⁷³⁴⁹

Ramamurti, “Nadagam Plates of Vajrahasta” (1897), p. 188 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶
Imperial Gazetteer: Madras, Vol. I (1908), p. 228 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵
W. Francis, Madras District Gazetteers: Vizagapatam, Vol. I (1907), p. 26 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹ ↩¹⁰ ↩¹¹ ↩¹² ↩¹³ ↩¹⁴
K. V. Subrahmanya Aiyer (ed.), South-Indian Inscriptions (Texts), Vol. VI (1928), Preface (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴
Rangacharya, Topographical List, Vol. I (1919), p. 699 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵
Francis, Vizagapatam (1907), p. 27 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹ ↩¹⁰ ↩¹¹ ↩¹²
Imperial Gazetteer: Madras, Vol. I (1908), p. 197 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶
Imperial Gazetteer of India, Provincial Series: Madras, Vol. I (1908), pp. 191–192 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵
Hultzsch, “Alamanda Plates of Anantavarman” (1895), p. 20, translation (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²
Robert Sewell, Lists of the Antiquarian Remains in the Presidency of Madras, Vol. I (1882), p. 7 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷
E. Hultzsch, “Alamanda Plates of Anantavarman”, Epigraphia Indica III (1894–95), p. 18 and note 1 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³
Ramamurti, “Nadagam Plates of Vajrahasta” (1897), p. 187 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²
Ghoshal, “Jirjingi Plates of Ganga Indravarman” (1940), p. 282 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). Paraphrased. ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴
Sewell, Historical Inscriptions (1932), p. 71 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). Paraphrased. ↩ ↩²
R. K. Ghoshal, “Jirjingi Plates of Ganga Indravarman: the Year 39”, Epigraphia Indica XXV (1939–40), p. 281 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). Paraphrased. ↩ ↩²
E. Hultzsch, “Achyutapuram Plates of Indravarman; the Year 87”, Epigraphia Indica III (1894–95), p. 127 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴
J. F. Fleet, “Sanskrit and Old-Canarese Inscriptions” (Chicacole grant of Indravarman, the year 128), Indian Antiquary XIII (1884), pp. 119–120 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵
Fleet, “Sanskrit and Old-Canarese Inscriptions” (Chicacole plates of Devendravarman son of Anantavarman), Indian Antiquary XIII (1884), p. 273 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵
Fleet, “Sanskrit and Old-Canarese Inscriptions” (1884), p. 274 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷
E. Hultzsch, “Chicacole Plates of Gunarnava’s Son Devendravarman; the Year 183”, Epigraphia Indica III (1894–95), p. 130 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸
Hultzsch, “Alamanda Plates of Anantavarman” (1895), p. 21, translation of line 28 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²
Gaurishankar Hirachand Ojha, Bharatiya Prachin Lipimala (2nd ed., 1918), p. 92 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). In Hindi; paraphrased. ↩ ↩² ↩³
Fleet, “Sanskrit and Old-Canarese Inscriptions” (1884), p. 275 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵
Hultzsch, “Chicacole Plates of Devendravarman” (1895), p. 131 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²
V. V. Mirashi, “Epoch of the Ganga Era”, Epigraphia Indica XXVI (1941–42), p. 333 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). Paraphrased. ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷
Sewell, Historical Inscriptions (1932), p. 357, notes to the genealogy of the Eastern Gangas (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). Paraphrased. ↩ ↩² ↩³
Robert Sewell, The Historical Inscriptions of Southern India (1932), p. 50 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). Paraphrased. ↩ ↩²
Sewell, Historical Inscriptions (1932), p. 76 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). Paraphrased. ↩ ↩²
Mirashi, “Epoch of the Ganga Era” (1942), p. 334 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). Paraphrased. ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵
V. V. Mirashi, “A Further Note on the Epoch of the Ganga Era”, Epigraphia Indica XXVII (1947–48), p. 192 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). Paraphrased. ↩
Mirashi, “Epoch of the Ganga Era” (1942), p. 336 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). Paraphrased. ↩ ↩² ↩³
Ramamurti, “Nadagam Plates of Vajrahasta” (1897), p. 185 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²
Sewell, Historical Inscriptions (1932), p. 87 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). Paraphrased. ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵
Ramamurti, “Dirghasi Inscription of Vanapati” (1897), p. 318, translation, verse 9 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). ↩
J. F. Fleet, “The Chronology of the Eastern Chalukya Kings”, Indian Antiquary XX (1891), p. 276 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²
Fleet, “Chronology of the Eastern Chalukya Kings” (1891), p. 277 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). ↩
V. Rangacharya, A Topographical List of the Inscriptions of the Madras Presidency, Vol. I (1919), p. 682 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³
Ramamurti, “Dirghasi Inscription of Vanapati” (1897), p. 315 and note 10 by E. Hultzsch (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³
Sewell, Historical Inscriptions (1932), p. 89 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). Paraphrased. ↩ ↩²
Sewell, Historical Inscriptions (1932), p. 93 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). Paraphrased. ↩ ↩² ↩³
V. Kanakasabhai Pillai, “Tamil Historical Texts, No. 2: The Kalingattu Parani”, Indian Antiquary XIX (1890), p. 337 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³
Rangacharya, Topographical List, Vol. III (1919), p. 1665 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³
Rangacharya, Topographical List, Vol. III (1919), p. 1674 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²
Rangacharya, Topographical List, Vol. II (1919), p. 734 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²
Hunter, Orissa, Vol. II (1872), Appendix VII, p. 187 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴
Rangacharya, Topographical List, Vol. II (1919), p. 741, Godavari No. 313 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). ↩
Rangacharya, Topographical List, Vol. II (1919), p. 744, Godavari No. 350 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²
P. V. Parabrahma Sastry, The Kakatiyas of Warangal (1978), pp. 109–110. ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵
Parabrahma Sastry, The Kakatiyas of Warangal (1978), p. 111. ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶
Parabrahma Sastry, The Kakatiyas of Warangal (1978), p. 112. ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷
Parabrahma Sastry, The Kakatiyas of Warangal (1978), p. 120. ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵
F. R. Hemingway, Madras District Gazetteers: Godavari, Vol. I (1907), p. 24 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴
Hemingway, Godavari (1907), p. 25 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴
Francis, Vizagapatam (1907), p. 28 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹ ↩¹⁰ ↩¹¹ ↩¹² ↩¹³ ↩¹⁴
E. Hultzsch, “Four Pillar Inscriptions of Eastern Chalukya Chiefs at Srikurmam”, Epigraphia Indica V (1898–99), p. 32 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³
H. Krishna Sastri, “Srikurmam Inscription of Naraharitirtha; Saka-Samvat 1203”, Epigraphia Indica VI (1900–01), p. 260 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²
Krishna Sastri, “Srikurmam Inscription of Naraharitirtha” (1901), p. 262 and note 5 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴
Rangacharya, Topographical List, Vol. III (1919), p. 1673, Vizagapatam No. 51 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). ↩
Hemingway, Godavari (1907), p. 26 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²
G. V. Ramamurti, “Nadagam Plates of Vajrahasta; Saka-Samvat 979”, Epigraphia Indica IV (1896–97), p. 184 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²
Rangacharya, Topographical List, Vol. I (1919), p. 700 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). ↩
G. V. Ramamurti, “Dirghasi Inscription of Vanapati; Saka-Samvat 997”, Epigraphia Indica IV (1896–97), p. 314 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). ↩
Rangacharya, Topographical List, Vol. III (1919), p. 1686 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). ↩
H. Krishna Sastri (ed.), South-Indian Inscriptions (Texts), Vol. V (1925), Preface (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²
W. W. Hunter, Orissa, Vol. I (1872), p. 171 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³
Imperial Gazetteer: Madras, Vol. I (1908), p. 230 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²
Sewell, Historical Inscriptions (1932), p. 94 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). Paraphrased. ↩
Rangacharya, Topographical List, Vol. I (1919), p. 701 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). ↩
Sewell, Historical Inscriptions (1932), p. 358 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). Paraphrased. ↩ ↩²
Rangacharya, Topographical List, Vol. I (1919), p. 688 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). ↩
Hunter, Orissa, Vol. II (1872), Appendix VII, p. 188 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). ↩
Rangacharya, Topographical List, Vol. I (1919), p. 684 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²
Rangacharya, Topographical List, Vol. III (1919), p. 1666 (archive.org (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²