French East India Company

The French East India Company, the Compagnie des Indes, was the last of the three European companies to trade on the Telugu coast. It was also the first to rule part of it. For nine years, from 1750 to 1759, it held Machilipatnam (then Masulipatam) and then the whole coastal country from the Krishna to Srikakulam (then Chicacole).¹²

The Nizams of Hyderabad granted this land to pay for the French troops that kept them on the throne.¹² This page follows the French in the Telugu districts. Their wars in the Carnatic belong to the Nawabs of the Carnatic and the Asaf Jahis. The English story is on the East India Company page, and the Dutch on the Dutch East India Company page.

The sources

The fullest narrative is Robert Orme’s History of the Military Transactions of the British Nation in Indostan (first published 1763–78), used here in the Madras reprint of 1861.³ Orme had the Company’s records and the reports of officers who served.³ G. B. Malleson’s History of the French in India (1868) tells the story from the French side.²

The district manuals of Kistna (Mackenzie, 1883) and Godavari (Morris, 1878, and Hemingway, 1907) and the Vizagapatam gazetteer (Francis, 1907) follow these and add local records.⁴⁵⁶ For Bussy’s revenue system they quote James Grant’s Political Survey of the Northern Circars.⁴⁵⁶ Grant wrote it for the Company in 1784, and it was printed in the appendices to the Fifth Report.⁶ The treaties are in C. U. Aitchison’s Collection of Treaties (Vol. VIII, 1892).⁷

Factories at Masulipatam and Yanam

Henry Morris’s Godavari manual tells how the French began at Machilipatnam.⁸ In 1669 Marcara, “a Persian in the service of the French”, obtained a farman (royal order) from the King of Golconda.⁸ It let the French Company trade “without payment of duty either on imports or exports”.⁸ It also gave a licence to set up a factory (trading post) at Machilipatnam.⁸ In 1693 “a small square was built, which received the name of Francepéta”.⁸

The French also had a factory at Yanam, on the Godavari near the English settlement of Injaram.⁸⁹¹⁰¹¹ Morris thought it “apparently subordinate to their chief at the larger and more important town”.⁸⁹ Yanam did not exist in 1706, when a flood swept the coast.⁸⁹ Morris says the factory “was established there some time before 1750”.⁹ Hemingway’s gazetteer says “about 1750”.¹⁰¹¹ See Yanam and Machilipatnam.

The grants of 1750–1753

The war for the Nizam’s throne after 1748 set the French behind Muzaffar Jang and the English behind his uncle Nasir Jang. In 1750 Nasir Jang ordered the French factories at Machilipatnam and Yanam to be seized.¹²¹³ The Kistna manual says that his officers did so “with all possible tenderness”.¹³ They sealed up the goods without plundering them.¹²¹³

Joseph Dupleix, Governor at Pondicherry, answered by sending 200 Europeans, 20 East Indians and 200 sepoys by sea.¹⁴¹⁵ They sailed on the night of 9–10 July 1750 and landed at Machilipatnam on the 12th.¹⁴¹⁵ They took the fort without opposition, under a grant of the place that Dupleix already held from Muzaffar Jang.¹⁴¹⁵

Nasir Jang was killed in December 1750.¹⁶¹⁷ Muzaffar Jang then “confirmed his former grant of Masulipatam and the island of Divi”.¹⁶ He ordered that coin struck at Pondicherry should pass current through his lands.¹⁶ The official narrative in Aitchison’s Treaties says that he assigned the French “the town and district of Masulipatam”.¹⁷

Bussy raised Salabat Jang to the throne in 1751, after Muzaffar Jang’s death.¹⁸¹⁹ Salabat Jang confirmed these grants.¹⁸¹⁹ Malleson says that he added “the lands attached to the villages of Nizampatnam, of Condavir, of Alemanava, and of Narsapore”.¹⁸¹⁹ He also ordered “the rebuilding of all the factories at Yanoon which his brother, Nazir Jung, had destroyed”.¹⁸¹⁹ And he gave Dupleix a territory in the district of Srikakulam.¹⁸¹⁹

The Kistna manual dates the grant of “the province of Kondavidu, which adjoined the territory of Masulipatam”, to November 1752.²⁰ Then the Nizam’s ministers held back the pay of the French corps.¹² Bussy marched on Aurangabad and obtained the four Circars (districts).¹² Malleson dates the agreement to 4 December 1753.² The provinces of “Mustafanaggur, Ellore, Rajamundry, and Chicacole” were made over “for the support of their army so long as a certain strength should be maintained in the Dekkan”.¹²

Malleson reckoned that the French then held “470 miles of sea-coast, from the Chilka Lake to Motupali”.² Their places included Ganjam, Srikakulam, Vizianagaram, Visakhapatnam (then Vizagapatam), Korangi (then Coringa), Yanam, Machilipatnam, Eluru (then Ellore) and Nizampatnam.² These lands yielded about £400,000 a year.² The Kistna manual calls the four provinces and Machilipatnam “six hundred miles of sea coast and a territory larger than any as yet possessed in India by a European power”.¹ See Kondaveedu, Kondapalli, Eluru, Rajahmundry and Srikakulam.

Taking possession, 1754

Possession was harder than the grant. Moracin, the French officer at Machilipatnam, was ordered to take over.⁵²¹ But Jafar Ali, governor of Srikakulam, refused to give up his charge.⁵²¹ He drew in the Raja of Vizianagaram, “the most powerful of the renter-chiefs”.⁵²¹

Moracin won the Raja over with a lease of the Rajahmundry and Srikakulam circars “at a rate much below their value”.⁵²¹ Jafar Ali then called in the Marathas of Nagpur.⁵²¹ They crossed the Eastern Ghats and “devastated both circars from end to end”.⁵²¹ They burnt the Dutch factory at Bheemunipatnam (then Bimlipatam) and went home by way of Eluru “with an immense booty”.⁵²¹

In July 1754 Bussy came in person to Machilipatnam and Rajahmundry.²²²¹ The Kistna manual says he stayed until December “settling the details of their administration”.²² The Vizagapatam gazetteer says that he appointed one Ibrahim Khan faujdar (military governor) of Srikakulam.²¹ See Vizianagaram.

Bussy’s government

James Grant, writing for the Company thirty years later, praised Bussy’s settlement.⁶⁴ The zamindars (landholders), he said, “were as usual dismissed from their employments, but generally permitted to enjoy, under French sunnuds, their russooms and saverums, or conditional hereditary privileges”.⁶⁴

Grant also wrote of “the union or annexation of these several possessions under one head”.⁶⁴ For that task Vijayarama Raju of Vizianagaram “rendered himself the most useful and acceptable man to act in the capacity of chief”.⁶⁴ At that time he held only four parganas (sub-districts) round Vizianagaram.⁶⁴

A survey and hustabood, “or detailed account of the gross collections of the whole country”, was made.²³ It put Bussy “in the knowledge of resources entirely beyond the reach of his Mussulman predecessors”.²³ But moderation was necessary, and “the jummabundy or annual settlement, therefore, was only doubled in Cicacole and Rajemundry”.²³

The zamindars were bound to keep the peace and bear the cost of collection.²³⁵ They also had to “keep on foot a sebundy corps or militia of twelve thousand infantry”.²³⁵ Grant believed that, had Bussy completed his scheme, the zamindars would have been left “nothing beyond a splendid family subsistence”.²³ The Kistna manual read the same passage as saying that Bussy did not take an undue share of the revenue for himself.²⁴

The Gazetteer of Southern India (1855) gives the French revenues at the truce of 1754:²⁵

• 14,41,000 rupees from Machilipatnam with Divi, Nizampatnam, Devikota and Kondavid²⁵
• 31,00,000 rupees from Eluru, Mustafanagar, Rajahmundry and Srikakulam²⁵

Rajahmundry was Bussy’s base in the Circars.^3262728 Orme brings his army there in December 1756.^3262728 He has Bussy leave a European garrison there in 1757 and return there after taking Visakhapatnam.^3262728 Orme calls it “the capital of the province”.^3262728

Bobbili, 1757

In 1756 the Nizam’s minister had Bussy dismissed.²⁹²¹ Bussy held out for some weeks in the Charmahal gardens at Hyderabad until fresh troops came from Machilipatnam.²⁹²¹ At the end of the year he marched into the Circars to restore his authority.²⁹²¹ Orme says his army reached Rajahmundry on 10 December.³ The Kistna manual says 19 December 1756.³⁰

The Raja of Vizianagaram met him with 10,000 men and turned him against his rival, “Rangarao of Bobilee”.³³¹³² Orme calls Ranga Rao “the first in rank” of the old poligars (hill chiefs).³³¹³² Bussy offered Ranga Rao other lands in exchange for Bobbili, and the offer was taken as an insult.³³¹³² Then a detachment passing through the Bobbili woods was attacked, with the loss of 30 sepoys.³³¹³² After this Bussy “determined to reduce the whole country”.³³¹³²

Bussy had 750 Europeans, four field-pieces and 11,000 of the Raja’s troops.³³³⁴ With them he cut his way through five miles of fortified forest to the mud fort.³³³⁴ He attacked at daybreak on 24 January 1757.³³³⁴

By two in the afternoon “not a man had gained the rampart”.³⁴³⁵ Ranga Rao then had his own men kill the women and children of the fort.³⁴³⁵ The men “returned, like men agitated by the furies, to die themselves on the walls”.³⁴³⁵ Ranga Rao was shot, and none of the defenders accepted quarter (an offer to spare their lives).³⁴³⁵

A tutor brought out Ranga Rao’s young son.³⁶ Bussy made the boy lord of the lands offered to his father.³⁶ Three nights later two of Ranga Rao’s soldiers crept into the Raja of Vizianagaram’s tent and stabbed him to death.³⁶ See Bobbili and Gopalakrishna Ranga Rao.

The English factories taken, 1757

After collecting tribute in the northern hills, Bussy turned on the English. News came that Clive had taken Chandernagore.³⁷²⁶ Bussy then sent troops from Rajahmundry and Machilipatnam against the English factories of “Madapollam, Bandermalanka, and Ingeram”.³⁷²⁶ Orme says these factories “annually furnished 700 bales for the Company’s market in England”.³⁷²⁶ Only Injaram had soldiers, twenty of them.³⁷²⁶ All three surrendered “on the first requisition”, that is, at the first demand.³⁷²⁶

Bussy himself took Visakhapatnam.²⁶³⁸³⁹ His leading troops appeared there on 24 June 1757.²⁶³⁸³⁹ The surrender was signed at eleven that night, and the English became prisoners of war.²⁶³⁸³⁹ The Godavari gazetteer adds that the factory at Nilapalli was taken at the same time.⁴⁰ See Visakhapatnam.

Condore and Masulipatam, 1758–1759

In January 1758 Bussy went back to Hyderabad.²⁹ In July the new Governor of Pondicherry, Lally, called him south with every man he could spare for the siege of Madras.²⁹

The new Raja of Vizianagaram, Ananda Raju, was “dissatisfied with the arrangements” that Bussy made “on the death of his predecessor”.⁴¹³⁹ He took Visakhapatnam from the French and wrote to the English for help.⁴¹³⁹ His letters reached Calcutta on 4 July 1758.⁴¹³⁹

Clive, against his Council, sent Colonel Francis Forde by sea.⁴²²⁹ Forde had “500 Europeans, including the artillery-men, 2000 Sepoys, and 100 Lascars”.⁴²²⁹ He reached Visakhapatnam on 20 October 1758 and joined the Raja.⁴³

The French were led by the Marquis de Conflans, Bussy’s successor.⁴⁴⁴⁵ They had 500 Europeans, 500 horse, 6,000 sepoys and “a great number of the troops of the country”.⁴⁴⁴⁵ They camped at Gollaprolu near Pithapuram.⁴⁴⁴⁵ On 9 December, Orme says, Forde marched before dawn to the village of “Condore”.⁴⁴⁴⁵ The French crossed the plain to cut him off and met his line a mile beyond it.⁴⁴⁴⁵

The French were routed.⁴⁶²⁸ They lost 30 guns, seven mortars, their tents and ammunition.⁴⁶²⁸ Forde’s European battalion lost 16 killed.⁴⁶²⁸ Orme writes: “No victory could be more complete.”⁴⁶²⁸ Conflans galloped forty miles to Rajahmundry that night.⁴⁶²⁸ Forde’s sepoys took the town and fort on the 10th.⁴⁶²⁸

The Godavari gazetteer identifies Orme’s Condore as Chandurti, “seven miles north by east of Pithapuram”.⁴⁷⁴⁸ There, tradition still marked the field.⁴⁷⁴⁸ See Chandurti.

Conflans fell back on Machilipatnam and asked Salabat Jang to march to his relief.⁴⁹⁵⁰ Forde appeared before the town on 6 March 1759.⁵⁰⁵¹ After a month’s siege his ammunition was nearly spent.⁵⁰⁵¹ The Nizam’s army was coming from Vijayawada (then Bezwada), so Forde decided to storm the town.⁵⁰⁵¹

The Fifth Report’s tables of the Company’s acquisitions date the capture to 7 April 1759, following Orme.⁵² The folding plan in the Kistna manual shows the storm “on the night of the 7th April 1759”.⁵³ Orme counts the prisoners at 500 Europeans and 2,537 “Coffrees, Topasses, or Sepoys”, more than the attackers.⁵⁴ The English also took 120 guns, and the attackers lost 22 Europeans killed.⁵⁴

The Kistna manual called “that midnight struggle in April 1759” the turning point of the French and English contest for India.⁵⁵⁴

The treaty of 1759

Salabat Jang, fearing his brother Nizam Ali at Hyderabad, came to terms. The treaty is given in Aitchison’s collection as “Requests made by Colonel Forde to Nawab Salabut Jung, and his compliance thereto”.⁷ It granted the English “the whole of the Circar of Masulipatam, with eight districts, as well as the Circar of Nizampatam, and the districts of Condavir and Wacalmanuer”.⁷

These lands were given “as an enam (or free gift)”.⁷ The sanads (deeds of grant) were to be granted “in the same manner as was done to the French”.⁷ The Nawab was to send the French troops out of the Deccan, “on the other side of the river Kistna”, within fifteen days.⁷ And “in future he will not suffer them to have a settlement in this country”.⁷

Orme summarises the same article as obliging the French “to pass the Kristna in 15 days”.⁵⁶ The rest of the Circars “returned again to the dominions of the Subadar of the Deccan”.⁵⁰ The English story continues on the East India Company page.

The French did not give up at once. Moracin was sent with reinforcements that arrived too late.⁵⁰⁵⁷⁵⁸ He landed at Kakinada (then Cocanada) in November 1759 and tried to raise Jagapati Raju, a cousin of the Raja of Vizianagaram.⁵⁰⁵⁷⁵⁸ In December a second small party landed there.⁵⁰⁵⁷⁵⁸ It was driven into the Dutch fort at Jagannathapuram and made to surrender.⁵⁰⁵⁷⁵⁸ Hemingway writes: “Thenceforth no French forces set foot in the district.”⁵⁰⁵⁷⁵⁸ See Kakinada.

Coins

The French in India had coined money at Pondicherry since Dumas obtained “from the Great Mogul, the privilege of coining money at Pondicherry”.⁵⁹ Muzaffar Jang’s order of 1750 made “coin struck at Pondicherry” current throughout his lands.¹⁶ Walter Elliot noted that small gold fanams were coined at the European factories of the coast.⁶⁰ He described “the French distinguished by the fleur-de-lis, and afterwards by a cock”.⁶⁰

Yanam after 1759

Hemingway says that Yanam was “formally ceded to them in 1752”.¹¹ It “shared the vicissitudes of their other possessions on this coast”, that is, it had the same changes of fortune.¹¹ Morris says that it was “restored to France with the other French possessions in India at each successive peace”.⁹

The Gazetteer of Southern India gives the changes of all the French possessions:⁶¹⁶²

• those given back by the peace of 1763 “were not occupied before 1765”⁶¹⁶²
• they were taken in 1778 and given back in 1783⁶¹⁶²
• they were taken again ten years later⁶¹⁶²
• they were briefly returned at the peace of Amiens in 1802⁶¹⁶²
• they were restored again by the treaties of 1814 and 1815⁶¹⁶²

Hemingway says that “from 1793 onwards, save for a short period in 1802–03”, Yanam was held by the English.¹¹⁶³ It stayed so “till the treaties of 1815 restored it to its former owners”.¹¹⁶³ “It was then finally handed back in 1817.”¹¹⁶³

By the treaty of 1814 France undertook to build no fortifications in its Indian settlements.⁶² It also agreed to keep in them only the troops needed for police.⁶² In 1787 Yanam exported two or three thousand bales of white long-cloth a year.⁹ The French also kept a lodge (trading house) at Machilipatnam, Frenchpettah, restored after 1814.⁶⁴⁶²

Yanam remained French until after Indian independence. A notification of the Government of India is dated 30 October 1954.⁶⁵ It was published in the Gazette of India of 1 November 1954.⁶⁵ It recites that by an agreement with France of 21 October 1954 the Indian government had jurisdiction (legal control) over the French Establishments in India.⁶⁵ It provides for their administration under a Chief Commissioner from 1 November 1954.⁶⁵ It names the Establishments as Pondicherry, Karaikal, Mahe and Yanam.⁶⁵

Where the sources disagree

• The founding of Yanam. Morris says the French factory was set up “some time before 1750”.⁹ Hemingway’s gazetteer says “about 1750”.¹⁰ The Imperial Gazetteer says that the French took Yanam about the time of the English settlement at Bendamurlanka.⁶⁶
• The grant of Kondavid. Malleson puts Condavir among the lands Salabat Jang added in 1751.¹⁹ The Kistna manual dates the grant of the province of Kondavidu to November 1752.²⁰ The Godavari gazetteer dates it to 1752.⁵
• The cession of the Circars. Malleson dates the agreement to 4 December 1753.² The Kistna manual describes the grant after Bussy met the Nizam near Aurangabad on 23 November.¹ The Imperial Gazetteer and the Fifth Report date it simply to 1753 (the Fifth Report to November).⁶⁷⁵²
• The extent of the French coast. Malleson reckoned 470 miles of sea-coast.² The Kistna manual says “six hundred miles”.¹
• Bussy’s return in 1756. Orme brings his army to Rajahmundry on 10 December 1756.³ The Kistna manual says 19 December.³⁰
• The date of Bobbili. Orme dates the storm to 24 January (1757).³⁴ The Bobbili family’s own account (Ranga Rao, 1907) puts the attack in 1758.⁶⁸
• The date of Condore. Orme and the Godavari gazetteer’s history chapter put the battle on 9 December 1758.⁴⁴²⁹ The gazetteer’s own account of Chandurti follows Orme’s narrative of the march, and describes the armies moving “on the early morning of the tenth”.⁴⁸
• The date of the treaty. The text in Aitchison is dated 16 Ramazan 1172, “the 14th of May 1759”.⁷ The gazetteers follow it.⁵⁰ Orme says the treaty was “signed, and delivered” on 12 May.⁵⁶

Footnotes

1. Gordon Mackenzie, A Manual of the Kistna District (1883), p. 49 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸

2. G. B. Malleson, History of the French in India (1868), p. 370 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹ ↩¹⁰ ↩¹¹ ↩¹²

3. Robert Orme, A History of the Military Transactions of the British Nation in Indostan, Vol. II (Madras reprint, 1861), p. 253 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹ ↩¹⁰ ↩¹¹ ↩¹² ↩¹³

4. Mackenzie, Kistna District (1883), p. 67 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸

5. Hemingway, Godavari (1907), p. 30 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹ ↩¹⁰ ↩¹¹ ↩¹²

6. James Grant, “Political Survey of the Northern Circars” (1784), in W. K. Firminger (ed.), The Fifth Report from the Select Committee … on the Affairs of the East India Company, Vol. III (1918), p. 13 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸

7. C. U. Aitchison, A Collection of Treaties, Engagements and Sanads, Vol. VIII (1892), p. 278, treaty with the Nizam, 1759 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸

8. Henry Morris, A Descriptive and Historical Account of the Godavery District (1878), p. 206 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸

9. Morris, Godavery District (1878), p. 207 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷

10. Hemingway, Godavari (1907), p. 29 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

11. Hemingway, Godavari (1907), p. 215, s.v. Yanam (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷

12. Malleson, French in India (1868), p. 252 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

13. Mackenzie, Kistna District (1883), p. 44 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

14. Mackenzie, Kistna District (1883), p. 45 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

15. Malleson, French in India (1868), p. 253 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

16. Mackenzie, Kistna District (1883), p. 46 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

17. Aitchison, Treaties, Vol. VIII (1892), p. 263 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

18. Malleson, French in India (1868), p. 274 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

19. Malleson, French in India (1868), p. 275 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

20. Mackenzie, Kistna District (1883), p. 47 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

21. W. Francis, Madras District Gazetteers: Vizagapatam, Vol. I (1907), p. 31 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹ ↩¹⁰ ↩¹¹ ↩¹²

22. Mackenzie, Kistna District (1883), p. 50 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

23. Grant, “Political Survey”, in Firminger, Fifth Report, Vol. III (1918), p. 14 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

24. Mackenzie, Kistna District (1883), p. 68 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

25. A Gazetteer of Southern India, with the Tenasserim Provinces and Singapore (1855), p. 311 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

26. Orme, Military Transactions, Vol. II (1861), p. 261 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹ ↩¹⁰ ↩¹¹ ↩¹²

27. Orme, Military Transactions, Vol. II (1861), p. 263 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

28. Orme, Military Transactions, Vol. II (1861), p. 383 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹ ↩¹⁰

29. Hemingway, Godavari (1907), p. 31 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸

30. Mackenzie, Kistna District (1883), p. 52 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

31. Orme, Military Transactions, Vol. II (1861), p. 254 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

32. Orme, Military Transactions, Vol. II (1861), p. 255 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

33. Orme, Military Transactions, Vol. II (1861), p. 256 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

34. Orme, Military Transactions, Vol. II (1861), p. 257 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸

35. Orme, Military Transactions, Vol. II (1861), p. 258 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

36. Orme, Military Transactions, Vol. II (1861), p. 259 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

37. Orme, Military Transactions, Vol. II (1861), p. 260 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

38. Orme, Military Transactions, Vol. II (1861), p. 262 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

39. “Acquisitions of Territory by the British in the Presidency of Fort St. George”, in Firminger, Fifth Report, Vol. III (1918), p. xv, No. XII, Vizagapatam (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

40. Hemingway, Godavari (1907), p. 213, s.v. Injaram and Nilapalli (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

41. Orme, Military Transactions, Vol. II (1861), p. 355 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

42. Orme, Military Transactions, Vol. II (1861), p. 364 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

43. Francis, Vizagapatam (1907), p. 33 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

44. Orme, Military Transactions, Vol. II (1861), p. 377 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

45. Orme, Military Transactions, Vol. II (1861), p. 378 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

46. Orme, Military Transactions, Vol. II (1861), p. 382 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

47. Hemingway, Godavari (1907), p. 227, s.v. Chandurti (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

48. Hemingway, Godavari (1907), p. 228 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

49. Orme, Military Transactions, Vol. II (1861), p. 475 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

50. F. R. Hemingway, Madras District Gazetteers: Godavari, Vol. I (1907), p. 32 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹ ↩¹⁰ ↩¹¹

51. Orme, Military Transactions, Vol. II (1861), p. 483 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

52. “Acquisitions of Territory”, in Firminger, Fifth Report, Vol. III (1918), p. xi, No. IV, Masulipatam (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

53. Mackenzie, Kistna District (1883), folding plan of the storm of Masulipatam, 1759, in the copy scanned as “A Manual of the Krishna District” (PDF p. 2) (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

54. Orme, Military Transactions, Vol. II (1861), p. 489 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

55. Mackenzie, Kistna District (1883), p. 66 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

56. Orme, Military Transactions, Vol. II (1861), p. 492 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

57. Hemingway, Godavari (1907), p. 33 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

58. Hemingway, Godavari (1907), p. 209, s.v. Cocanada (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

59. Gazetteer of Southern India (1855), p. 310 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

60. Walter Elliot, Coins of Southern India (1886), p. 58 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

61. Gazetteer of Southern India (1855), p. 312 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

62. Gazetteer of Southern India (1855), p. 313 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹

63. Hemingway, Godavari (1907), p. 216 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

64. Mackenzie, Kistna District (1883), p. 99 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

65. The Gazette of India, Extraordinary, Part II, Section 3, No. 254 (1 November 1954), p. 2137, notification S.R.O. 3314 of 30 October 1954 (Public domain in India; paraphrased) (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

66. Imperial Gazetteer of India: Madras, Vol. I (1908), p. 272 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

67. Imperial Gazetteer: Madras, Vol. I (1908), p. 185, s.v. Circars, Northern (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

68. Venkata Swetachalapati Ranga Rao, Maharaja of Bobbili, A Revised and Enlarged Account of the Bobbili Zemindari (1907), p. 42 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩