Nawabs of the Carnatic (Arcot)

The Nawabs of the Carnatic, called from their capital the Nawabs of Arcot, governed the country below the Eastern Ghats from the Krishna to the Coleroon.¹² They governed it first for the Mughal emperors and then for the Nizams.¹² Wilks calls their province the Carnatic Hyderabad Payanghat.¹ He describes it as “the whole country extending from Guntoor to the Coleroon, along the sea-coast of Coromandel; afterwards better known as the province of Arcot”.¹ The Nellore manual says that it “included the district of Nellore”.²

Most of their history was made in the Tamil country, at Arcot, Tiruchirappalli (then Trichinopoly) and Madras.¹² This page follows them where they touched the Telugu districts: Nellore, Ongole, the Palnad and Udayagiri.¹² It also follows the treaties by which those districts passed to the East India Company in 1801.¹² See Arcot, the Nawabs of Cuddapah and the Nawabs of Kurnool.

The sources

For the Telugu districts the main source is John Boswell’s Manual of the Nellore District (1873).³⁴ Its chapters on the Nawabs follow Robert Orme for the wars of the 1750s.³⁴ They print the reports of the Company’s first Collectors of Nellore, and of Ongole and the Palnad, in 1790–91.³⁴

C. U. Aitchison edited the Collection of Treaties, Engagements and Sanads.⁵ The official narrative in its eighth volume (1892) sets out the treaties with the Nawabs from 1754 to 1801.⁵ Mark Wilks’s Historical Sketches of the South of India (1810) draws on a Persian history of Saadatullah Khan’s family, the Saadat Nama, and on members of the family.⁶ Walter Elliot’s Coins of Southern India (1886) describes the Nawabs’ coinage from their mint accounts.⁷

Origins and the first Nawabs

The government of the Carnatic came to Saadatullah Khan, a Navayat and the diwan (revenue minister) of the Mughal general Daud Khan Panni.⁸⁶⁹ It came to him in 1713 according to Wilks and the records of Madras, or in 1710 according to Orme.⁸⁶⁹ In Wilks’s words, “thenceforward it became more usual to designate those several officers as the Nabobs of Sera, Arcot, and Kurpa from the names of their capitals”.⁸⁶⁹

The Nawab’s officers reached into the Telugu uplands as well.¹⁰¹¹ Gribble’s chronology of Siddhavatam (then Sidhout) says that in 1694 “Sadoolla Khan of Arcot” appointed a killadar (fort commander) there.¹⁰¹¹ The killadar sent the revenue to Arcot, until the Nawab of Cuddapah superseded his son in 1714.¹⁰¹¹

Saadatullah died in 1732, and his nephew Dost Ali succeeded him.¹²⁵ In 1740 a Maratha army came south by way of Kurnool and Kadapa (then Cuddapah).¹¹¹³¹⁴ It killed Dost Ali at the pass of Damalcheruvu.¹¹¹³¹⁴ His son Safdar Ali was murdered by a kinsman soon afterwards.¹¹¹³¹⁴

Nizam-ul-Mulk came to Arcot in 1743.³¹⁵⁵ His first nominee died, and then he “appointed one of his own officers, Anwar-ud-din Khan, to the vacant Nawabship”.³¹⁵⁵

Anwar-ud-din Khan had governed the Telugu north for the Nizam.¹⁶ Burhanuddin says that he was “Nabob of the Ellore and Rajamundry countries, which he governed from the year 1725 to 1741”.¹⁶ He reached Arcot in April 1744.¹⁷¹⁸ On 23 July 1749 he was killed at Ambur, fighting Muzaffar Jang and Chanda Sahib, who had brought down a French corps.¹⁷¹⁸ The official narrative calls him “the founder of the family of the Carnatic”.¹⁹

The Telugu districts

The Nawabs’ northern country was Nellore and its dependencies, Ongole and the Palnad.⁴ In 1790 the Company took over the management of the Nawab’s revenues.⁴ It appointed one Collector to “Nellore and dependencies”, and another to “Ongole and the Palnaud”.⁴

The Nellore district then had 23 perghanas (revenue divisions), from Nellore, Duvvur and Sarvepalli to Kandukur, Kavali and Gudur.²⁰ Each was under an amildar (revenue officer) with his clerks and peons.²⁰ Erskine was told that Ongole “was rated in the Nawab’s books at a lakh of pagodas, but … he never received more than 85,000 pagodas for it”.²¹²² A raja of Ongole drew an allowance of 3,000 pagodas.²¹²²

The Palnad had been a zamindari (estate) under Virabhadra Rao, until the Nawab dispossessed him.²³²² His son raided it from across the Krishna.²³²² The Imperial Gazetteer says that “with the cession of the Palnad in 1801 by the Nawab of Arcot, the entire District” of Guntur “finally became British territory”.²⁴ See Nellore, Ongole, Kandukur, Kavali and Macherla.

The great hill fort of Udayagiri was held by jagirdars (holders of land grants).²⁵ The Nellore manual says that the jagir of Udayagiri, 68 villages, “was the most important of all”.²⁵ Saadatullah Khan granted it in 1720, for the suppression of a freebooter (robber) and the support of the killadar of the hill fort.²⁵ In 1801 the grantee’s grandson held it.²⁵ He “had a considerable force, and was in possession of the Udayagiri droog, one of the strongest hill forts in the presidency”.²⁵ The Imperial Gazetteer says that the last of the line was deported in 1839, and the jagir taken back.²⁶ See Udayagiri.

The great poligars (local chiefs) of the north paid tribute but kept their own forces.²⁷ In 1756 the Nawab went north with an English detachment to collect the tribute of “the Northern Polygars”.²⁷ The poligar of Venkatagiri agreed to pay 1,40,000 rupees.²⁷ The poligar of Kalahasti agreed to pay 1,00,000 rupees “and to acknowledge the Nawab”.²⁷

In 1791 Venkatagiri paid a fixed peshkash (tribute) of 21,673 star pagodas at Madras, and Kalahasti paid 10,775.²⁸ The zamindar (landholder) of Saidapuram, smaller poligars and the jagirdar of Udayagiri paid theirs at Nellore.²⁸ See Srikalahasti.

Nellore under Najib-ullah, 1753–1762

In the 1750s Nellore was held by the Nawab Muhammad Ali’s brother, Najib-ullah.²⁹²⁷ The adventurer Muhammad Kamal surprised the town and drove him out.²⁹²⁷ But a year later, in 1753, Muhammad Kamal was defeated near Tirupati, and beheaded on Najib-ullah’s order.²⁹²⁷

In 1757 Najib-ullah refused the Nawab’s demand for an extra subsidy, and rebelled.³⁰³¹ An army of about 10,000 men under the Nawab’s brother Abdul Wahab besieged Nellore.³²³³³⁴ With it were an English detachment under Forde, and the troops of the poligars of Venkatagiri and Kalahasti.³²³³³⁴ Nellore was a town of mud walls with a dry ditch.³²³³³⁴ The garrison, helped by twenty Frenchmen, threw back the assault on the breach, and the army withdrew.³²³³³⁴

Najib-ullah then joined the French.³⁵³⁶ In 1758 he bought off the Maratha Balwant Rao.³⁵³⁶ He received Bussy at Nellore and marched with the French against Tirupati.³⁵³⁶

In 1759 the French siege of Madras failed.³⁶³⁷³⁸ Najib-ullah then killed the Frenchmen with him, and was confirmed in Nellore for a tribute of 30,000 pagodas.³⁶³⁷³⁸ In 1762 an English force under Caillaud took the Nellore fort, and made over the district to the Nawab.³⁶³⁷³⁸ See Tirupati and Balwant Rao Mendle.

Government and revenue

The Imperial Gazetteer judged the financial system of the Subahdar of the Deccan “and his subordinate the Nawab of Arcot”.³⁹ It thought it “probably in practice the worst that the country had ever known”.³⁹ It says that in Nellore, “under the Nawabs of Arcot the country was parcelled out into large divisions”.⁴⁰ It adds that the right of collecting “all the demands of the state on each of these was farmed out to the highest bidder”.⁴⁰ The effects, it says, “were notoriously bad”.⁴⁰

The district was governed by fauzdars (military governors).⁴¹⁴² The Nellore manual lists them “from the days of the Nawab Anwar-u-din and his successors”.⁴¹⁴² Among them were Abdul Wahab Khan, Muhammad Kamal and Najib-ullah.⁴¹⁴² They were often named together with a colleague, such as “Ramana Puntulu”.⁴¹⁴² Later came Nagulapati Venkata Rao and Bolla Venkata Rao.⁴¹⁴²

Dighton, the first Collector, believed that from 1781 to 1789 the collections “never exceeded three lakhs of pagodas”.^21224344 He reckoned that the district could yield 3,60,000 pagodas “without oppressing the inhabitants”.^21224344 He noted that the Nawab allowed 5,000 pagodas a year for tanks and channels.^21224344 This was honestly spent for some years, but neglected since.^21224344

Erskine described how the Palnad was farmed.²¹²³ Before, it had been governed by a resident fauzdar with a force of sepoys, horse and peons.²¹²³ But for twelve years it had been governed through amildars, whose posts “were generally put up to sale”.²¹²³ The post went to the man “who could advance the largest sum”.²¹²³

Each new amildar broke the leases of his predecessor, and the people fled.²¹²³ Erskine wrote that “twenty-seven villages, out of 150 … are reduced to this state”.²¹²³ The population had fallen “within these twelve or fourteen years nearly one-third”.²¹²³ The Board of Revenue noted in 1791 that Nellore and Ongole, by contrast, had “entirely escaped the effects of the two last wars”.²⁸

Forts and troops

The Nawabs relied on English troops for their wars after 1750.³²⁴⁵ Orme described Nellore itself in 1757.³² Its walls were “of mud, and only the gateway and a few of the towers of stone”.³² The Imperial Gazetteer thought its fort “probably built about this time”.⁴⁵

In the Palnad the fauzdar at Timmarikota had once commanded “about 800 sepoys, 50 horse, and from 100 to 500 peons”.²¹²³ In 1790 the Nawab had two companies of sepoys there, and none in Ongole.²¹²³ During the assignment of the revenues, a revenue battalion and a regular battalion of the Company’s sepoys were stationed at Nellore.²¹²³ By the treaty of 1792 the Carnatic was to be “garrisoned by British troops”.⁴⁶ See Udayagiri.

Coins

Elliot says that the gold pagodas of “Sa’adut Ulla Khán” can be recognised by the Persian letters for illah on the granulated reverse.⁷ Those of his relative Safdar Ali can be recognised by the letter ain.⁷ Muhammad Ali, with the title Walajah, struck coins at Arcot, Porto Novo, Tiruchirappalli and Tiruvamur.⁷ Among them were the Walajahi, the Kuruki, the Star and the Feringhipet pagodas.⁷ His mint accounts list “Arcot rupees” among the silver coins.⁷

Elliot adds that the rupees of the Nawabs’ mints were “inferior in standard, but of the same nominal value” as the Company’s.⁴⁷ Charles Philip Brown’s Carnatic Chronology says that from 1758 the English coined money at Madras for the Nawab.⁴⁸ These coins were “called Arcot rupees, and dated A.H. 1172”.⁴⁸ Elliot’s plates show a Kuruki pagoda “struck by the Nawabs of Arcot” and a pagoda of Safdar Ali.⁴⁹ See the gallery on this page.

The Company and the Nawab, 1763–1792

The treaty of Paris of 1763 recognised Muhammad Ali as Nawab.⁵⁰⁵¹ After that he granted the Company the jagir round Madras, and the emperor gave him the title of Walajah.⁵⁰⁵¹

His debts grew with the wars against Haidar Ali.⁵² The official narrative says that on 2 December 1781 an agreement was made.⁵² It was agreed “that the revenues of the Carnatic should be transferred to the British Government for five years, the Nawab receiving one-sixth for his private expenses”.⁵² The Imperial Gazetteer says that with this assignment of 1781, “Nellore passed for the first time under direct British management”.³⁸

The revenues were restored in 1785.⁵² By the treaty of 1787 the Nawab agreed to pay nine lakhs of pagodas a year for the Carnatic’s defence.⁵² See Muhammad Ali Khan Walajah.

When war with Tipu Sultan broke out in 1790, the Company took over the country again.⁵³⁴ The Court of Directors complained that the Nawab’s fauzdar and amildar at Nellore “absolutely refused to submit to the Company’s authority”.⁵³⁴ Dighton was appointed Collector of Nellore, and Erskine of Ongole and the Palnad.⁵³⁴

The treaty of 12 July 1792 ended the arrangement.⁴⁶ Its terms were these:⁴⁶⁴¹

• The Nawab was to pay nine lakhs of pagodas a year for the Company’s troops.⁴⁶
• The Company was to collect the poligars’ tribute in his name, and to take over the whole country in war.⁴⁶
• Certain districts, among them Nellore and Ongole, were named in its schedule as security.⁴⁶

By the end of August 1792 Nellore “had been transferred to the Nawab’s officers”.⁴¹

The end, 1795–1801

Muhammad Ali was succeeded by his son Umdat-ul-Umara on 16 October 1795.⁴⁶ To meet the subsidy, the Nawab “contracted heavy loans, and to liquidate them assigned to his creditors the revenues of his country”.⁴⁶ This was “a system which resulted in cruel oppression”.⁴⁶

Srirangapatna (then Seringapatam) fell in 1799, and papers were found there.⁴⁶ They showed “a treasonable correspondence … which had been begun by Muhammad Ali and his son with Tipu Sultan shortly after the conclusion of the treaty of 1792”.⁴⁶ The Company declared itself released from the treaty.⁴⁶

Umdat-ul-Umara died on 15 July 1801.⁴⁶¹⁹ His reputed son refused the Company’s terms.⁴⁶¹⁹ On 31 July 1801 his nephew Azim-ud-daula, “great-grandson by both parents of Anwar-ud-din”, accepted them.⁴⁶¹⁹

The treaty vested in the Company “the sole and exclusive administration of the civil and military governments of all the territories and dependencies of the Carnatic Payen Ghat”.⁵⁴⁵⁵ It also gave the Company “the full and exclusive right to the revenues thereof”.⁵⁴⁵⁵ A fifth of the net revenues was allotted to the Nawab and his family.⁵⁴⁵⁵

The Nellore manual has a map of “the District of Nellore and Ongole at the date of the assumption in 1801”, showing the new district.⁵⁶ The manual goes on from “its final cession in 1801” to the British administration.⁵⁶

The Nawabs kept their title for half a century more.¹⁹⁵⁷ Azim-ud-daula died in 1819, and his son in 1825.¹⁹⁵⁷ The son’s infant successor, Muhammad Ghaus, died without issue (children) in 1855.¹⁹⁵⁷ The government then declared “the title, privileges, and immunities of the Carnatic family” at an end.¹⁹⁵⁷ In 1867 Muhammad Ghaus’s uncle, Azim Jah, was made Prince of Arcot.¹⁹⁵⁷ In 1873 the Nellore district still paid Carnatic stipends among its political pensions.⁵⁶

Where the sources disagree

• Saadatullah Khan’s dates. Wilks and the Madras records date his appointment to 1713, and Orme to 1710.⁶ Brown’s chronology has “Saadat Ali Khan, of Arcot” governor of the Carnatic in 1710.⁵⁸ Gribble’s Sidhout chronology names “Sadoolla Khan of Arcot” acting there in 1694.¹⁰ Wilks and the official narrative date his death to 1732, and Elliot to 1731.¹²⁵⁷
• Ambur. Wilks dates the battle to 23 July 1749.¹⁸ Brown, writing in 1863, cites a Persian record dating it to the equivalent of 3 December 1750.⁵⁹
• Muhammad Ali’s place among his brothers. Wilks calls him the youngest son of Anwar-ud-din, and Mahfuz Khan “the only legitimate son”.¹⁸⁶⁰ The Nellore manual calls him the second son.⁶¹
• Muhammad Ali’s reign. The Nellore manual’s list gives him 1750 to 1794, and Umdat-ul-Umara 1794 to 1801.²⁴² Its narrative, and the official narrative, put his death in October 1795.⁴²⁴⁶
• The title Walajah. Elliot dates the emperor’s grant to 1766.⁷ The Nellore manual places it with the grant of the Northern Circars to the Company (1765).⁵¹
• Najib-ullah’s garrison in 1757. The Nellore manual, following Orme, says 4,000 peons with twenty Frenchmen.³² The Imperial Gazetteer says 3,000 men.⁶²
• The cession of Nellore. The treaty with Azim-ud-daula is dated 31 July 1801.⁵⁴ Brown’s chronology says that “the English took possession of Nelloor” in 1800.⁶³

Footnotes

1. Mark Wilks, Historical Sketches of the South of India, Vol. I (1810), p. 218 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷

2. John A. C. Boswell, A Manual of the Nellore District (1873), p. 444 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷

3. Boswell, Nellore District (1873), p. 445 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

4. Boswell, Nellore District (1873), p. 464 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹

5. C. U. Aitchison, A Collection of Treaties, Engagements and Sanads, Vol. VIII (1892), p. 1 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

6. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. I (1810), p. 226 and note (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

7. Walter Elliot, Coins of Southern India (1886), p. 144 and note 2 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸

8. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. I (1810), p. 225 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

9. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. I (1810), p. 227 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

10. J. D. B. Gribble, A Manual of the District of Cuddapah (1875), p. 51 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

11. C. F. Brackenbury, Madras District Gazetteers: Cuddapah, Vol. I (1915), p. 41 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

12. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. I (1810), p. 248 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

13. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. I (1810), p. 252 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

14. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. I (1810), p. 253 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

15. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. I (1810), p. 254 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

16. Muhammad Burhanuddin Siddiqui, The Carnatic & Kurnool, their Last Muhammedan Rulers (Madras, 1905), p. 30 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

17. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. I (1810), p. 255 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

18. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. I (1810), p. 259 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

19. Aitchison, Treaties, Vol. VIII (1892), p. 5 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹

20. Boswell, Nellore District (1873), p. 465 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

21. Boswell, Nellore District (1873), p. 466, quoting the reports of Dighton and Erskine for fasli 1200 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹ ↩¹⁰ ↩¹¹ ↩¹² ↩¹³ ↩¹⁴ ↩¹⁵ ↩¹⁶

22. Boswell, Nellore District (1873), p. 468 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸

23. Boswell, Nellore District (1873), p. 467, quoting Erskine (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹ ↩¹⁰ ↩¹¹ ↩¹²

24. Imperial Gazetteer of India, Provincial Series: Madras, Vol. I (1908), p. 302 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

25. Boswell, Nellore District (1873), p. 499 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

26. Imperial Gazetteer: Madras, Vol. I (1908), p. 368 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

27. Boswell, Nellore District (1873), p. 450 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷

28. Boswell, Nellore District (1873), p. 471, quoting the Board of Revenue’s report of 1791 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

29. Boswell, Nellore District (1873), p. 449 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

30. Robert Orme, A History of the Military Transactions of the British Nation in Indostan, Vol. II (Madras reprint, 1861), p. 202 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

31. Boswell, Nellore District (1873), p. 451 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

32. Boswell, Nellore District (1873), p. 452 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸

33. Boswell, Nellore District (1873), p. 453 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

34. Boswell, Nellore District (1873), p. 454 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

35. Boswell, Nellore District (1873), p. 455 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

36. Boswell, Nellore District (1873), p. 456 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

37. Imperial Gazetteer: Madras, Vol. I (1908), p. 344 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

38. Imperial Gazetteer: Madras, Vol. I (1908), p. 345 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

39. Imperial Gazetteer: Madras, Vol. I (1908), p. 90 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

40. Imperial Gazetteer: Madras, Vol. I (1908), p. 355 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

41. Boswell, Nellore District (1873), p. 472 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷

42. Boswell, Nellore District (1873), p. 473 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷

43. Boswell, Nellore District (1873), p. 469 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

44. Boswell, Nellore District (1873), p. 470 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

45. Imperial Gazetteer: Madras, Vol. I (1908), p. 366 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

46. Aitchison, Treaties, Vol. VIII (1892), p. 4 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹ ↩¹⁰ ↩¹¹ ↩¹² ↩¹³ ↩¹⁴ ↩¹⁵ ↩¹⁶

47. Elliot, Coins of Southern India (1886), p. 145 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

48. C. P. Brown, Carnatic Chronology (1863), p. 74 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

49. Elliot, Coins of Southern India (1886), p. 152h, description of Plate IV, Nos. 180–181 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

50. Boswell, Nellore District (1873), p. 459 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

51. Boswell, Nellore District (1873), p. 460 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

52. Aitchison, Treaties, Vol. VIII (1892), p. 3 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

53. Boswell, Nellore District (1873), p. 463 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

54. Aitchison, Treaties, Vol. VIII (1892), p. 57, treaty with Azim-ud-daula, 31 July 1801, Articles 1 and 4 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

55. Aitchison, Treaties, Vol. VIII (1892), p. 58, Articles 4–5 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

56. Boswell, Nellore District (1873), p. 474, and the map facing it (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

57. Aitchison, Treaties, Vol. VIII (1892), p. 6 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

58. Brown, Carnatic Chronology (1863), p. 71 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

59. Brown, Carnatic Chronology (1863), p. 73 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

60. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. I (1810), p. 261 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

61. Boswell, Nellore District (1873), p. 447 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

62. Imperial Gazetteer: Madras, Vol. I (1908), p. 367 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

63. Brown, Carnatic Chronology (1863), p. 77 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩