Adil Shahis of Bijapur

The Adil Shahis were the sultans of Bijapur, the westernmost of the kingdoms that rose from the break-up of the Bahmani sultanate.¹²³ They ruled from about 1489 until Aurangzeb took their capital in 1686.¹²³ Their kingdom lay mostly in the Kanarese and Marathi country, but it bordered the Telugu lands along the Krishna and the Tungabhadra.¹²³ For a century its kings fought Vijayanagara over the Raichur doab, the land between the two rivers.¹²³

After the battle of 1565 they took Adoni, and in the seventeenth century Kurnool and Penukonda.⁴³⁵ So the western uplands of Rayalaseema were Bijapuri territory until the Mughal conquest.¹²³ They were governed by Abyssinian and other Muslim nobles, and by tributary chiefs.¹²³ This page tells that story briefly from the Bijapur side.¹²³ See the Qutb Shahis of Golconda for the eastern Telugu country in the same years, and the Mughals in the Telugu country for what followed 1686.

The sources

The main narrative for the first century is the Persian history of Muhammad Qasim Ferishta.⁶ He lived at the court of Ibrahim Adil Shah II.⁶ He says that he wrote “the deeds of the illustrious monarchs who have reigned over Beejapoor” first of all his histories of the Deccan kingdoms.⁶ John Briggs’s English translation (1829) is used here.⁶ Ferishta’s Bijapur history stops at about 1596.⁷

For the seventeenth century the main sources used here are these:⁸⁹¹⁰¹

• Grant Duff’s History of the Mahrattas (1826)⁸
• Jadunath Sarkar’s History of Aurangzib (1912–30), which draws on the Bijapur court history Basatin-us-Salatin⁹
• the Bijapur volume of the Bombay Gazetteer (1884)¹⁰
• the outline history in Henry Cousens’s survey Bijapur and its Architectural Remains (1916)¹

For the Telugu districts themselves, the Madras district manuals and gazetteers of Kurnool, Bellary and Anantapur add local traditions and Mackenzie manuscripts.¹¹¹²⁵ Henry Heras’s Aravidu Dynasty (1927) weighs the Bijapur accounts against Telugu chronicles and inscriptions.¹³

Yusuf Adil Khan and the break with Bidar

Yusuf Adil Khan was a foreign-born officer.¹¹⁴ The Bahmani king had made him governor of Bijapur, with the title of Adil Khan.¹¹⁴ As the Bahmani state broke up, he made himself king.¹¹⁴ Cousens says that “in A. D. 1489, like the governors of other provinces, he openly declared his independence”.¹ He did this “by ordering the khutbah to be read in the public mosques in his own name” (the khutbah is the Friday sermon).¹ Ferishta gives AH 895 (1489–90; AH is the Islamic way of counting years).¹⁴

Ferishta tells the legend that Yusuf was a son of the Ottoman sultan Murad II, smuggled out of Turkey as a child.¹ Cousens records another account, that he was the son of a governor of Sava in Persia.¹

The Raichur doab wars

The forts of Mudgal and Raichur, in the doab between the Krishna and the Tungabhadra, were the first aim of the new kingdom.¹⁵¹⁶¹⁷ Ferishta says that in Rajab AH 898 (April 1493) Yusuf routed the Vijayanagara regent Timraj.¹⁵¹⁶¹⁷ He captured “two hundred elephants, and a thousand horses … besides sixty lacks of hoons”.¹⁵¹⁶¹⁷ Then he took Mudgal and Raichur in forty days.¹⁵¹⁶¹⁷

Under his son Ismail Adil Shah the forts were lost again.^18192021 Ferishta says that in AH 927 (1520–21) Ismail tried to recover them.^18192021 The attempt ended in a rash crossing of the Krishna, and much of his army was drowned.^18192021

The Portuguese chronicler Nuniz, translated by Sewell, describes something different.²²²³²⁴ He tells of a siege of Raichur by Krishnadevaraya in 1520, while Ismail held it.²²²³²⁴ In the battle that followed, Ismail “barely escaped with his life”.²²²³²⁴ Sewell preferred Nuniz’s account.²²²³²⁴ See Raichur.

Ibrahim Adil Shah I was drawn into the civil war at Vijayanagara.²⁵²⁶²⁷ Ferishta says that in AH 942 (1535) Bhoj Tirmal Ray invited him to the capital and “seated him on the royal musnud” (throne).²⁵²⁶²⁷ On the way home Ibrahim sent his minister Asad Khan to besiege Adoni.²⁵²⁶²⁷ Ramraj’s brother Venkatadri came to relieve it.²⁵²⁶²⁷ After a Bijapur night attack on Venkatadri’s camp, the campaign ended in a negotiated peace.²⁵²⁶²⁷

In AH 959 (1551–52) Ramraj (Aliya Rama Raya) and Burhan Nizam Shah took Raichur and Mudgal from Bijapur.²⁸²⁹

Talikota

Ali Adil Shah I at first allied with Ramraj.³⁰³¹ But he turned against him and joined the sultans of Ahmadnagar, Golconda and Bidar.³⁰³¹ Ferishta says that Ali gave a pretext for war by demanding “Etgeer, Bagrakote, Rachore, and Moodkul”.³⁰³¹

The battle was fought in January 1565, south of the Krishna, but it is named after the allied camp at Talikota.³⁰³¹ According to Ferishta, Ali commanded the right wing against Venkatadri.³⁰³¹

Ramraj was captured and beheaded, and the allies plundered Vijayanagara.³²³³³⁴ Cousens says that Ali “obtained possession … of the forts of Raichur and Mudgal”.³⁴ He spent his plunder on walling in Bijapur.³⁴ Ferishta closes the episode: “The kingdom of Beejanuggur since this battle has never recovered its ancient splendour”.³³

Adoni, Penukonda and the uplands, 1568–1600

Ferishta says that in AH 976 (1568) Ali’s general Ankus Khan took Adoni.⁴³⁵ Since 1565 it had been held by an officer of Ramraj who had “assumed independence”.⁴³⁵ It fell after a long blockade of a fort “fortified with eleven walls, one within another”.⁴³⁵

Ali then agreed with Ahmadnagar that he should be free to “conquer as much of the dependencies of Beejanuggur as he thought proper”.³⁵ The Anantapur gazetteer (1905) says that Bijapur “proceeded to invade the country south of the Kistna, including the Bellary and Anantapur districts”.³⁶

Taylor and Fergusson’s Architecture at Beejapoor (1866) printed a map of the kingdom.³⁷ Its title describes it as “shewing its probable boundary before and after the battle of Talikota”.³⁷ Its frontier after 1565 takes in Bellary, Adoni and Gooty, but stops short of Kurnool and Penukonda.³⁷

Penukonda was the new seat of the Aravidu kings, and different sources tell its sieges differently.³⁸ Ferishta describes one siege by Ali, launched from Adoni.³⁸ The ruler of Penukonda retired to Chandragiri.³⁸ After three months the garrison was near starvation.³⁸ Then he bribed the Bergi (Maratha) horse in Ali’s army to desert, and the siege was raised.³⁸

An inscription of 1576–77 at the north gate of Penukonda tells another story.³⁹⁴⁰ It records that the Vijayanagara officer Channappa Nayudu beat off Muslim generals there in 1566–67, 1568–69 and 1576–77.³⁹⁴⁰ The last time it was “Yedula-Sahi”, whom H. Krishna Sastri identified with Ali Adil Shah.³⁹⁴⁰

Heras argued that Ferishta’s account belongs to a later siege under Ibrahim II.^1341424344 He rebuilt Ali’s campaigns from Telugu chronicles:^1341424344

• an advance turned back with Golconda’s help
• a battle about 1576 in which the emperor Sriranga was taken prisoner
• a siege in 1577 beaten off by Jagadeva Raya^1341424344

See the Penukonda inscription of 1577, Penukonda and the Penukonda fort.

The uplands north of Penukonda now passed under Bijapuri overlordship through their chiefs.⁴⁵ Charles Brown translated the Hande annals of Anantapur in 1853.⁴⁵ They say that after Sriranga’s capture the Hande chief Malakappa Nayudu “betook himself to the Pachas, and behaved obediently in their service”.⁴⁵ He received Bukkapatnam and Anantasagaram, “and also the title ‘Padshah Vazir’”.⁴⁵

In 1595–96 a Karnatak chief besieged Adoni, and troops sent by Ibrahim II drove him off.⁴⁶ Early in the seventeenth century the Abyssinian general Abdul Wahab Khan took Kurnool from Gopala Raja, a grandson of Rama Raya.¹¹³⁴⁷ He governed it until his death in 1618.¹¹³⁴⁷ See Kurnool.

The Karnatak conquests, 1636–1656

The treaty with Shah Jahan in 1636 fixed Bijapur’s northern frontier and the tribute it paid.¹⁰⁹ It left Bijapur free to expand southwards.¹⁰⁹

Muhammad Adil Shah sent his armies into the Karnatak under Randaula Khan.⁴⁸¹⁰ Second in command was Shahji Bhonsle, the father of Shivaji.⁴⁸¹⁰ The Bombay gazetteer says that Shahji’s expedition of 1637 “was so successful that the limits of the Bijapur kingdom were extended to the Bay of Bengal”.¹⁰

Sarkar describes Golconda and Bijapur closing on the last Vijayanagara king, Sriranga of Chandragiri, “as between the two jaws of a monster”.⁴⁹⁵⁰⁵¹ Sriranga “lost Jinji to the former and Chandragiri to the latter”.⁴⁹⁵⁰⁵¹ The Bijapuris also took Vellore.⁴⁹⁵⁰⁵¹ A Mackenzie manuscript quoted in the Anantapur gazetteer says that Penukonda fell to Bijapur in 1652, when its governor was bribed with a jagir (land grant).⁵

On the Golconda side, the conquest of the Karnatak uplands was the work of the minister Mir Jumla, who took Gandikota. The Qutb Shahi page tells that story. Sarkar says that when the two armies met near Jinji, Mir Jumla settled their quarrel.⁵²⁵³ In his words, “by mutual consent a line drawn east to west some distance north of Jinji became the boundary between Adil Shahi Karnatak and Qutb Shahi Karnatak”.⁵²⁵³

At Muhammad’s death in 1656, Sarkar says, the kingdom stretched “from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal”.⁹ Its tributaries covered “the Bellary and Karnul districts of Madras, and much of the kingdom of Mysore”.⁹ See the Gandikota fort.

Governing the Telugu districts

Sarkar describes the later Bijapur kingdom as “a pure military occupation”.² In it the provinces were divided among the great nobles.² The Afghans held the west, and “the Abyssinians (ruling over the eastern province, viz., the Karnul district and a part of the Raichur Doab)”.²

The governors of Adoni and Kurnool fit this picture.¹²⁸ At Adoni the Bellary gazetteer names Malik Rahiman Khan, governor from 1604 to 1631.¹²⁸ It also names Siddi Masud Khan, governor from 1662 to 1687.¹²⁸ Masud had inherited the wealth of Inayatullah, an earlier jagirdar (holder of a land grant) of Adoni.¹²⁸

At Kurnool, Abdul Wahab was succeeded by his brother Muhammad, and “the country continued to be governed by deputies from Bijapur”.^3545556 About 1660 it was the “government and Jagheer” of the Abyssinian Siddi Jauhar.^3545556 Siddi Jauhar rebelled in 1662, and Ali Adil Shah II put the rebellion down.^3545556

The Kurnool manual says that a Bijapur subadar (governor) of Adoni also had authority around Nandyal.¹¹ It adds: “the last of them, Majid Khan, having built a town called Masidpuram near Nandyal”.¹¹

Much of the country was held through tributary chiefs.⁵⁷⁵⁸ The Bellary gazetteer says that the Bijapur Sultan gave the first poligar (local chief) of Bellary his estates.⁵⁷ The terms were “the payment of a peshkash of some Rs. 5,000 and performance of military service with 3,000 peons” (foot soldiers).⁵⁷ Munro’s memorandum on the poligars is printed in the Kurnool manual.⁵⁸ It records an ancestor of the poligar of Devanakonda who “served under the Bijapur Government with 100 peons” for a fixed peshkash (tribute).⁵⁸

The Anantapur gazetteer says that the Bijapur kings took the old lands of the chiefs of Sira.⁵⁹ Instead they gave them Ratnagiri and Madakasira.⁵⁹

Local Hindu officers remained.³⁶⁰ The Kurnool manual says that Shivaji took three lakhs of rupees from Ananda Rao, the deshmukh (district revenue officer) of Kurnool.³⁶⁰ Under Bijapur the raja of Gadwal held the privileges of “Nadu” and “Nadugaudu” in the Kurnool country.³⁶⁰ According to Ferishta, the revenue records were kept in the local language by Brahmin officers from the time of Ibrahim I.⁶¹ Cousens says the opposite.⁶²

Nothing is known of the revenue itself.⁶³⁶⁴ Thomas Munro reported on the Ceded districts in 1801.⁶³⁶⁴ He wrote that “authentic documents are altogether wanting” for the Bijapur government.⁶³⁶⁴ But he believed that the revenue was more than the kamil (standard) assessment of 24,84,188 Kanthiraya pagodas.⁶³⁶⁴ This assessment was fixed “a few years after the subversion of the (Vijayanagar) empire by the Muhammadan conquerors”.⁶³⁶⁴

Munro added a note about “Raidrug, Harpanahalli and some other of the western taluks which were reduced by the Bijapur Sultans”.⁶³⁶⁴ There, he wrote, this kamil “appears to have been settled without any regular survey”.⁶³⁶⁴

Coins

The Adil Shahis seem to have struck little coinage of their own.⁶⁵ Stanley Lane-Poole’s catalogue of the British Museum coins of the Muhammadan states (1885) lists the Adil Shahis of Bijapur from AH 895.⁶⁵ But it says that the Museum had only “the imitations of the old Lar hook-money which the ‘Adil-Shahis of Bijapur stamped with their titles”.⁶⁵

Cousens collected two to three hundred copper coins at Bijapur.⁶⁶⁶⁷ On them the Reverend George Taylor read the names of five kings, in the order of the Bijapur kings: Ali, Ibrahim, Muhammad, a second Ali and Sikandar.⁶⁶⁶⁷ Cousens also describes the silver wire larins of the Bijapur coast, and two small gold coins of Muhammad Shah.⁶⁶⁶⁷ He notes Ferishta’s statement that, of the Deccan kings, only the Qutb Shahis struck gold.⁶⁶⁶⁷ No find of Adil Shahi coins in the Telugu districts is recorded in the sources used here.

Buildings in the Telugu districts

Two buildings in the Telugu country have cited dates from the Bijapur period.¹²⁶⁸ The Jama Masjid of Adoni was built by Siddi Masud Khan.¹²⁶⁸ It carries Persian verses giving the date of completion as AH 1079 (1666–67).¹²⁶⁸ Masud also built a well and a new bastion in the fort, both with inscriptions.¹²⁶⁸

At Kurnool, the two-domed tomb of Abdul Wahab on the bank of the Handri is dated to AH 1028 (1618).⁶⁹⁷⁰

The Anantapur gazetteer says that after Penukonda fell the conquerors “used the right of conquest freely, pulling down many Hindu temples and constructing mosques out of the materials of them”.⁵ The Bellary gazetteer says the same of several small mosques in the Adoni fort.⁷¹ One of them proved to be a temple of 1517.⁷¹

Shivaji and the last years

In 1677 Shivaji marched from Hyderabad into the Karnatak, in alliance with Golconda.⁷²⁷³⁷⁴ He crossed the Krishna “at the Nivritti Sangam … 24 miles north-east of Karnul” and visited Srisailam.⁷²⁷³⁷⁴ He took Jinji and Vellore from Bijapur (the Bombay gazetteer dates this expedition to 1676).⁷²⁷³⁷⁴ He agreed with Golconda on “the conquest and division of all the southern territory of the Bijapur kingdom”.⁷²⁷³⁷⁴

The Bellary and Anantapur gazetteers say that in 1677 he took most of Bijapur’s possessions in the Karnatak.⁷⁵⁷⁶ In 1680, they say, Bijapur’s rights over the Bellary and Anantapur country were formally made over to him.⁷⁵⁷⁶

Under the boy-king Sikandar Adil Shah, Siddi Masud of Adoni became regent in 1678.⁷⁷⁷⁸ In 1679 he bought Shivaji’s help against the Mughals by ceding the Raichur doab.⁷⁷⁷⁸ He was then driven back to Adoni.⁷⁷⁷⁸ See Srisailam.

The fall of Bijapur, 1686–1688

Aurangzeb’s armies besieged Bijapur from 1685.^79808182 Sarkar writes that on 12 September 1686 Sikandar capitulated (surrendered).^79808182 He was given the title of Khan and a pension, and died a prisoner in 1700.^79808182

Adoni held out under Siddi Masud.⁸³⁸⁴ Sarkar says that Firuz Jang was sent in January 1688 to conquer “the district of Karnul and the fort of Adoni”.⁸³⁸⁴ Masud capitulated on 6 August 1688 and was made a Mughal noble, and the fort was renamed Imtiaz-garh.⁸³⁸⁴ Grant Duff and the Bellary gazetteer say instead that he refused imperial service and died in obscurity.⁸⁵⁸⁶⁸⁷

The Kurnool manual says that Kurnool “with the other provinces of Bijapur” passed to the emperor in 1686.³ See the Mughals in the Telugu country and Aurangzeb.

Where the sources disagree

• Raichur in 1520. Ferishta has Ismail attack Raichur, then in Vijayanagara hands, in AH 927.¹⁹ Nuniz has Krishnadevaraya besiege it while Ismail held it.²²²⁴ Sewell followed Nuniz.²²²⁴
• Adoni, 1535–37. Ferishta says the siege was raised and ended in a treaty.²⁷ The Bellary gazetteer says that Ibrahim I retreated.⁸⁸ Cousens says that the enterprise was “brought to a very successful issue”.⁸⁹
• Penukonda. Ferishta tells one siege under Ali I, raised when the Bergis were bribed.³⁸ Krishna Sastri and the Anantapur gazetteer date it to 1576–77.³⁹⁹⁰ Heras moved Ferishta’s story to the reign of Ibrahim II, and dated Ali’s sieges from Telugu sources.⁴⁴
• Kurnool and Sivaji. Sarkar dates Shivaji’s march past Kurnool to 1677.⁷² The Kurnool manual dates it to 1674.³
• Muhammad’s queen. Sarkar calls Bari Sahiba a sister of the Golconda king.⁹¹ The Bombay gazetteer says Muhammad married Abdullah’s daughter.¹⁰
• Ali II’s birth. The Bijapur histories make him Muhammad’s son, born in 1638.⁹²⁹³ Aurangzeb called him a foundling brought up as a son.⁹²⁹³
• The fall of Bijapur. Sarkar gives 12 September 1686.⁷⁹ The Bombay gazetteer gives “about the 15th of October 1686”.⁹⁴
• Adoni’s surrender. Sarkar gives 6 August 1688, and says Masud became a Mughal noble.⁸⁴ The Bellary gazetteer gives 1687 and the Imperial Gazetteer 1686.¹²⁹⁵ Both, with Grant Duff, say he refused imperial service.¹²⁹⁵⁸⁶

Footnotes

1. Henry Cousens, Bijapur and its Architectural Remains (Archaeological Survey of India, Imperial Series, Vol. XXXVII, 1916), p. 2 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹ ↩¹⁰ ↩¹¹ ↩¹² ↩¹³ ↩¹⁴ ↩¹⁵ ↩¹⁶

2. Jadunath Sarkar, History of Aurangzib, Vol. IV (2nd ed., 1930), p. 151 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹ ↩¹⁰

3. Narahari Gopalakristnamah Chetty, A Manual of the Kurnool District (1886), p. 29 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹ ↩¹⁰ ↩¹¹ ↩¹² ↩¹³ ↩¹⁴ ↩¹⁵ ↩¹⁶ ↩¹⁷ ↩¹⁸

4. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. III (1829), p. 134 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

5. W. Francis, Madras District Gazetteers: Anantapur (1905), p. 192 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

6. Muhammad Qasim Ferishta, “The Author’s Preface to Vol. III”, tr. John Briggs, History of the Rise of the Mahomedan Power in India, Vol. III (1829), p. 2 of the preface (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

7. Muhammad Qasim Ferishta, tr. John Briggs, History of the Rise of the Mahomedan Power in India, Vol. III (1829), p. 188 and note (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

8. James Grant Duff, A History of the Mahrattas, Vol. I (1826), p. 282 and notes (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

9. Sarkar, Aurangzib IV (1930), p. 155 and note (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

10. James M. Campbell (ed.), Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency, Vol. XXIII: Bijapur (1884), p. 426 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸

11. Chetty, Kurnool District (1886), p. 28 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

12. W. Francis, Madras District Gazetteers: Bellary (1904), p. 196 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹ ↩¹⁰ ↩¹¹

13. Henry Heras, The Aravidu Dynasty of Vijayanagara, Vol. I (1927), p. 269 and note 3 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

14. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. III (1829), p. 9 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

15. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. III (1829), p. 12 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

16. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. III (1829), p. 13 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

17. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. III (1829), p. 14 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

18. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. III (1829), p. 44 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

19. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. III (1829), p. 48 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

20. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. III (1829), p. 49 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

21. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. III (1829), p. 50 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

22. Francis, Bellary (1904), p. 39 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

23. Francis, Bellary (1904), p. 40 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

24. Robert Sewell, A Forgotten Empire (Vijayanagar) (1900), p. 136 and note (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

25. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. III (1829), p. 83 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

26. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. III (1829), p. 85 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

27. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. III (1829), p. 86 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

28. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. III (1829), p. 104 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

29. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. III (1829), p. 105 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

30. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. III (1829), p. 126 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

31. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. III (1829), p. 129 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

32. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. III (1829), p. 130 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

33. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. III (1829), p. 131 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

34. Cousens, Bijapur and its Architectural Remains (1916), p. 9 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

35. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. III (1829), p. 135 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

36. Francis, Anantapur (1905), p. 21 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

37. Philip Meadows Taylor and James Fergusson, Architecture at Beejapoor (1866), “Map of the Kingdom of Beejapoor, shewing its probable boundary before and after the Battle of Talikota, A.D. 1565”, facing p. 1 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

38. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. III (1829), p. 141 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

39. H. Krishna Sastri, “The Third Vijayanagara Dynasty; its Viceroys and Ministers”, Archaeological Survey of India, Annual Report 1911–12 (1915), p. 184 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

40. Krishna Sastri, “The Third Vijayanagara Dynasty”, ASI Annual Report 1911–12 (1915), p. 185 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

41. Heras, Aravidu Dynasty I (1927), p. 270 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

42. Heras, Aravidu Dynasty I (1927), p. 271 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

43. Heras, Aravidu Dynasty I (1927), p. 272 and note 3 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

44. Heras, Aravidu Dynasty I (1927), p. 336 and note 1 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

45. The Wars of the Rajas, being the History of Anantapuram, tr. C. P. Brown (1853), p. 6 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

46. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. III (1829), p. 187 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

47. Heras, Aravidu Dynasty I (1927), p. 337 and note 1 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

48. Grant Duff, History of the Mahrattas, Vol. I (1826), p. 121 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

49. Jadunath Sarkar, History of Aurangzib, Vols. I–II (1912), p. 119 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

50. Sarkar, Aurangzib I–II (1912), p. 138 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

51. Sarkar, Aurangzib I–II (1912), p. 139 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

52. Sarkar, Aurangzib I–II (1912), p. 120 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

53. Sarkar, Aurangzib I–II (1912), p. 123 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

54. Grant Duff, History of the Mahrattas, Vol. I (1826), p. 182 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

55. Grant Duff, History of the Mahrattas, Vol. I (1826), p. 186 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

56. Grant Duff, History of the Mahrattas, Vol. I (1826), p. 187 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

57. Francis, Bellary (1904), p. 210 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

58. Chetty, Kurnool District (1886), p. 61, quoting Munro’s memorandum on the poligars (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

59. Francis, Anantapur (1905), p. 183 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

60. Chetty, Kurnool District (1886), p. 34 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

61. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. III (1829), p. 80 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

62. Cousens, Bijapur and its Architectural Remains (1916), p. 5 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

63. Thomas Munro (1801), quoted in Francis, Bellary (1904), p. 150 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷

64. Thomas Munro (1801), quoted in W. Francis, Madras District Gazetteers: Bellary (1904), p. 151 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷

65. Stanley Lane-Poole, The Coins of the Muhammadan States of India in the British Museum (1885), p. viii (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

66. Cousens, Bijapur and its Architectural Remains (1916), p. 127 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

67. Cousens, Bijapur and its Architectural Remains (1916), p. 128 and pl. CXV (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

68. Francis, Bellary (1904), p. 200 and notes (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

69. Chetty, Kurnool District (1886), p. 225 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

70. Imperial Gazetteer of India: Madras, Vol. I (1908), p. 426 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

71. Francis, Bellary (1904), p. 199 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

72. Jadunath Sarkar, Shivaji and his Times (2nd ed., 1920), p. 337 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

73. Sarkar, Shivaji and his Times (1920), p. 339 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

74. Bombay Gazetteer, Vol. XXIII: Bijapur (1884), p. 432 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

75. Francis, Bellary (1904), p. 44 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

76. Francis, Anantapur (1905), p. 22 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

77. Sarkar, Aurangzib IV (1930), p. 157 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

78. Bombay Gazetteer, Vol. XXIII: Bijapur (1884), p. 433 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

79. Sarkar, Aurangzib IV (1930), p. 388 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

80. Sarkar, Aurangzib IV (1930), p. 389 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

81. Sarkar, Aurangzib IV (1930), p. 390 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

82. Sarkar, Aurangzib IV (1930), p. 393 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

83. Sarkar, Aurangzib IV (1930), p. 459 and note (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

84. Sarkar, Aurangzib IV (1930), p. 460 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

85. Grant Duff, History of the Mahrattas, Vol. I (1826), p. 345 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

86. Grant Duff, History of the Mahrattas, Vol. I (1826), p. 346 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

87. Francis, Bellary (1904), p. 197 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

88. Francis, Bellary (1904), p. 195 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

89. Cousens, Bijapur and its Architectural Remains (1916), p. 6 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

90. Francis, Anantapur (1905), p. 191 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

91. Sarkar, Aurangzib I–II (1912), p. 145 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

92. Sarkar, Aurangzib I–II (1912), p. 161 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

93. Cousens, Bijapur and its Architectural Remains (1916), p. 16 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

94. Bombay Gazetteer, Vol. XXIII: Bijapur (1884), p. 435 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

95. Imperial Gazetteer: Madras, Vol. I (1908), p. 452 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²