Asaf Jahis (Nizams of Hyderabad)

The Asaf Jahis ruled Hyderabad State, which included Telangana, from the 1720s until 1948.¹² Their founder was a Mughal general who became viceroy of the Deccan. His title, Nizam-ul-Mulk, became the hereditary title of the family, and its rulers are usually called the Nizams.¹

Gribble says that the first Nizam’s authority reached over almost the whole peninsula south of the Tapti, including the east coast from Srikakulam (then Chicacole) southwards.³ The coastal districts passed to the French in 1753 and to the English in 1766, and Rayalaseema to the East India Company in 1800.⁴⁵⁶⁷ Telangana remained the Telugu-speaking heart of the Nizam’s Dominions to the end.⁴⁵⁶⁷

The sources

The Imperial Gazetteer of India volume on Hyderabad State (1909) gives the standard outline of the dynasty’s history.¹ The official collection of treaties edited by C. U. Aitchison (fourth edition, 1909) gives the British side of every engagement from 1759 onwards.⁸

Henry Briggs’s The Nizam (1861) and Gribble’s History of the Deccan (1896) are fuller narratives by British authors.⁹¹⁰¹¹ Gribble’s second volume was finished by his daughter Mary Pendlebury in 1924.⁹¹⁰¹¹ The Nizam accepted the dedication of this second volume, and it argues the Nizam’s case over Berar.⁹¹⁰¹¹

Two works come from Hyderabad itself.¹²¹³ A. Claude Campbell’s Glimpses of the Nizam’s Dominions (1898) has lists of the Nizams, Residents and ministers.¹² K. Krishnaswamy Mudiraj’s Pictorial Hyderabad (1929) has portraits of the rulers and ministers.¹³ Their dates do not always agree, and the differences are noted below.

Foundation

The Imperial Gazetteer says Asaf Jah was of Turkoman descent and served Aurangzeb with distinction. He was appointed subahdar, or viceroy, of the Deccan in 1713 with the title Nizam-ul-Mulk.¹ Gribble describes how, after a spell as chief minister at Delhi, he turned his back on the imperial court. When his deputy at Hyderabad, Mubariz Khan, declared himself viceroy, Asaf Jah marched south and defeated and killed him at Shakarkhelda in Berar.¹⁴¹⁵

The Imperial Gazetteer dates the battle to 1724 and says it established his independence.¹ It adds that he annexed Berar and fixed his residence at Hyderabad.¹ Gribble and the Anantapur gazetteer give 1723.¹⁵¹⁶ William Irvine, working from the Persian chronicles, dates the decisive day to 11 October 1724.¹⁷

The emperor accepted the result and sent him the title Asaf Jah.¹⁵ He died in 1748, ruler of a kingdom roughly the size of the later state with Berar.¹ See Mughals in the Telugu country.

Henry Briggs, writing in 1861, traced the family to Kilich Khan, who came to Aurangzeb’s court from Samarkand. Kilich Khan’s son, Mir Shahab-ud-din, won the title Ghazi-ud-din in Aurangzeb’s service and later that of Feroz Jang, and died at Ahmedabad in 1711. Ghazi-ud-din married a daughter of Saadullah Khan, a minister of Shah Jahan, and their son, born in 1671, was Mir Qamar-ud-din, later Asaf Jah.⁹

Campbell’s Glimpses repeats this account almost word for word, and its genealogical tree of the Nizams follows the same line.¹⁸ Bilgrami gives the grandfather’s name as Khwaja Mir Abid Khan, also called Chin Qalich Khan. He says the grandfather was mortally wounded by a cannon ball at the siege of Golconda in January 1687.¹⁹²⁰ He was buried near Atapur, where other members of the family were later buried.¹⁹²⁰

Gribble describes the government Asaf Jah set up. In his account, the land was divided into thirds:²¹

• one third was kept for the ruler’s own purse (the sarf-i-khas)²¹
• one third paid for the government (the diwani lands)²¹
• one third was granted out as jagirs²¹

A jagir was an assignment of land revenue in return for service. The largest were military fiefs whose holders had to keep up troops.²¹ Gribble says these were still known in his day as the paigah estates (estates granted to nobles for keeping troops), and their holders had wide powers within them.²¹

Gribble praises the founder for following the old Deccan practice of employing Hindus in revenue and finance while relying on Muslim nobles for troops.²¹ The praise is Gribble’s own judgement.²¹ His second volume adds that the local rajas who held grants from earlier kings were confirmed on payment of tribute.²² They kept “a kind of semi-independent jurisdiction within the limits of their estates”.²²

Asaf Jah died at Burhanpur on 19 June 1748, according to Mudiraj, and was buried at Khuldabad near Aurangabad.²³²⁴

The succession war and the French

When Asaf Jah died, his second son Nasir Jang seized the treasury and the throne, while the eldest, Ghazi-ud-din, stayed at Delhi. Nasir Jang’s nephew Muzaffar Jang, the son of Asaf Jah’s daughter, claimed the throne as his grandfather’s chosen heir.²⁵⁸ The English backed Nasir Jang and the French backed Muzaffar Jang. Both claimants were killed, and the French then raised another son, Salabat Jang, to the throne.¹

The Nawab of Kadapa (then Cuddapah) shot Nasir Jang on his elephant in December 1750.²⁶ The Nawab of Kurnool killed Muzaffar Jang early in 1751.²⁷ The French governor Dupleix became, in the gazetteer’s words, “the controller of the Nizam’s authority”.¹ Muzaffar Jang granted the French Machilipatnam (then Masulipatam) in 1750.²⁸

Gribble says Salabat Jang, raised by Bussy in March 1751, reached Hyderabad in April and entered Aurangabad in June.²⁹³⁰

According to Malleson’s History of the French in India (1868), Salabat Jang made over four provinces to the French on 4 December 1753.⁴ They were Mustafanagar, Eluru (then Ellore), Rajahmundry and Srikakulam, and the grant was to pay for Bussy’s army.⁴ With earlier grants this gave the French 470 miles of coast “from the Chilka Lake to Motupali”.⁴

Circar comes from sarkar, “a division of land”.²⁸ The name dates from Muslim rule, and was used for the coastal provinces from Guntur north to Srikakulam.²⁸ Gribble says the province had been governed by the Nizam’s deputy at Rajahmundry.³¹ It was largely held by semi-independent zamindars (landholders) such as those of Vizianagaram and Bobbili.³¹

In 1756 the court dismissed Bussy, and he made a stand at Hyderabad.³²³³ Malleson places him in the walled garden of Char Mahal on the Musi.³² The Imperial Gazetteer says he occupied the Char Minar.³³

After Colonel Forde took Machilipatnam in 1759, Salabat Jang ceded the country round it to the English.³⁴ He also promised to keep the French out of his dominions.³⁴ The treaty collection puts the ceded area at about 700 square miles.⁵

Nizam Ali Khan and the East India Company

Nizam Ali Khan, Asaf Jah’s fourth son, became his brother’s minister and in 1761 deposed him.³⁵³⁶ Briggs dates the imprisonment of Salabat Jang to July 1762 and his murder to about fifteen months later.³⁷ Nizam Ali’s long reign, to 1803, settled the relationship with the British that lasted until the end of the dynasty.³⁵³⁸

• The Northern Circars. In 1765 the Company obtained an imperial grant (farman) of the five Circars from the Mughal emperor Shah Alam. By the treaty of 12 November 1766 the Nizam handed them over. The Company agreed to keep troops ready for his service.³⁹²⁸ It also agreed to pay nine lakhs of rupees a year for the Circars of Rajahmundry, Eluru, Mustafanagar, Srikakulam and Murtazanagar (Kondavidu–Guntur).³⁹²⁸ The Imperial Gazetteer of Hyderabad instead gives six lakhs a year, payable when no troops were required.³⁵ A second treaty, of 1768, recognised the emperor’s grant.⁴⁰⁴¹ Guntur, held for life by the Nizam’s brother Basalat Jang, came under British administration only in 1788.⁴² In 1823 the Nizam’s remaining claims over the Circars were bought out with a lump sum. The Imperial Gazetteer gives 116½ lakhs.⁴² The Godavari gazetteer and the treaty collection give Rs 1,66,66,666.⁴¹⁴³
• The Marathas and the subsidiary alliance. In 1795 the Marathas defeated the Nizam at Kharda.⁴⁴⁶ The treaty they imposed cost him territory worth thirty-five lakhs a year and three crores of rupees.⁴⁴⁶ He took into his service battalions under Raymond, with French officers.⁶⁴⁵ By the treaty of 1 September 1798 he disbanded them.⁶⁴⁵ He accepted instead a permanent British subsidiary force (troops paid for by him) of six battalions, at Rs 24,17,100 a year.⁶⁴⁵
• The Ceded Districts. Nizam Ali joined the British and the Marathas against Tipu Sultan of Mysore in 1790. He received territory under the treaties of 1792 and 1799, including much of what became the Anantapur, Ballari (then Bellary), Kadapa and Kurnool districts.³⁵⁴⁶ By the treaty of 12 October 1800 he ceded these Mysore territories to the Company to pay for an enlarged force.⁶⁴⁷⁴⁶ They became the “Ceded Districts”, and Thomas Munro was their first Principal Collector.⁶⁴⁷⁴⁶ The treaty secured the Nizam in his sovereignty but forbade him to negotiate with other states.⁴⁸ It made the British “the arbiter in his disputes with other powers” (the judge of his disputes).⁴⁸

Nizam Ali Khan died at Hyderabad in August 1803. Briggs gives the date as 7 August and Campbell as 6 August.⁴⁹⁵⁰

Aurangabad or Hyderabad

The sources do not agree on when Hyderabad became the capital. The Imperial Gazetteer says Asaf Jah came first to Aurangabad and “subsequently made Hyderabad his capital”.⁵¹ Mudiraj says he completed the city wall of Hyderabad “and made it his capital”.⁵² Campbell’s account of Aurangabad says the city lost its importance “in 1720, when the Hyderabad dynasty was founded, with Hyderabad as the capital”.⁵³

Yet Gribble describes Salabat Jang and Bussy at Aurangabad in 1751–53.³⁰⁵⁴ Briggs has Nizam Ali seize Aurangabad in 1759 before moving “towards the capital”, Hyderabad.⁵⁵ None of the sources consulted for this page dates a formal transfer of the court from Aurangabad to Hyderabad. The Imperial Gazetteer still lists an “ancient palace of the Nizam” at Aurangabad.⁵⁶ See Aurangabad and Hyderabad.

The nineteenth century

The Imperial Gazetteer records the main events of the next century:³⁸

• The battle of Assaye (1803) secured the Nizam’s territories against the Marathas.³⁸
• In 1822 he was freed from paying chauth, the Maratha tribute, to which the British had succeeded.³⁸
• In 1839 a Wahhabi conspiracy against the British and the Nizam was discovered.³⁸
• In 1847 a riot between Shias and Sunnis cost about fifty lives.³⁸
• In 1853 Berar and other districts were assigned to the British to pay the Hyderabad Contingent, a force kept by the British for the Nizam’s use.³⁸

In 1857 the Nizam, Afzal-ud-daula, advised by his minister Salar Jang, stood by the British.³⁸⁵⁷ In return the treaty of 1860 restored some districts and cancelled a debt, while Berar stayed in British hands in trust.³⁸⁵⁷

Government in these decades lay largely with the ministers. The treaty collection says that Sikandar Jah, “whose sanity was doubted, lived a secluded life, and took no interest in the administration”.⁴⁸ Campbell says Chandu Lal was in practice chief minister from about 1809 until he resigned in 1843.⁵⁸ He served as deputy (peshkar) to a powerless minister, Munir-ul-Mulk.⁵⁸

The Imperial Gazetteer confirms that Chandu Lal followed Munir-ul-mulk as minister and resigned in 1843, when Siraj-ul-mulk succeeded him.³⁸ Under Sikandar Jah’s successor, Nasir-ud-daula, the British officers who had supervised the districts were withdrawn at his request. The treaty collection says this was “immediately followed by the return of disorder and misrule”.⁴³⁵⁹

The 1853 treaty assigned Berar, Osmanabad (Naldrug) and the Raichur Doab, with a gross revenue of 50 lakhs a year.³⁸ It bound the British to keep up a force of 5,000 infantry, 2,000 cavalry and four field batteries.³⁸ Campbell gives the same force and revenue.⁵⁰

A week after the treaty Siraj-ul-mulk died, and his nephew Salar Jang became minister.³⁸ Campbell dates Siraj-ul-mulk’s death to 26 May 1853 and Salar Jang’s to 9 February 1883.⁶⁰ Nasir-ud-daula died in May 1857.³⁸ Campbell gives the date as 16 May and his age as 66.⁵⁰

On the evening of 17 July 1857 a band of Rohillas attacked the British Residency.⁶¹ They were led by Turrebaz Khan, a Rohilla jemadar (officer), with the Maulvi Allauddin.⁶¹ The Resident’s letter to the Nizam the next day describes how they broke down the gates.⁶¹

They took refuge in two houses, which were shelled through the night.⁶¹ By morning they had slipped back into the city, leaving four dead.⁶¹

Both leaders were later caught.⁶¹ Allauddin was sentenced to transportation for life (to be sent away as a prisoner) to the Andamans.⁶¹ Turrebaz Khan escaped from custody and was shot while being recaptured.⁶¹

Campbell’s account agrees in outline.⁶² He puts the attackers at about 500 Afghans, joined by a crowd of several thousand.⁶² He says that Salar Jang had warned the Resident, Colonel Davidson, in advance.⁶² He also says the attackers left thirty-two killed or wounded behind.⁶² See the British Residency.

The districts restored in 1860 were Osmanabad (Naldrug) and the Raichur Doab, with a revenue of 21 lakhs. A debt of 50 lakhs was cancelled, and the Nizam received presents worth £10,000.⁵⁷ In 1861 he was made a Knight Grand Commander of the Star of India.⁵⁷

Campbell dates the presents to 5 October 1861.⁶³¹² He adds that the small state of Shorapur, whose raja had joined the rising, was also given to the Nizam.⁶³¹² See Afzal-ud-daula.

Salar Jang and the regency

From 1869 the young Nizam Mahbub Ali Khan reigned under a regency, in which Salar Jang was the leading figure until his death in 1883. The gazetteer credits Salar Jang with reorganising the government into departments and carrying out a revenue survey and settlement.⁵⁷⁶⁴ It also credits him with setting up civil and criminal courts and putting the state finances in order.⁵⁷⁶⁴

Salar Jang had begun his career in 1847 as talukdar (revenue officer) of districts in Telangana.⁶⁵⁶⁶ Campbell says he became minister in 1853 with the treasury empty and the troops’ pay in arrears.⁶⁵⁶⁶ In Campbell’s words, the Arab jamadars (commanders) held “almost half the revenues and all the power”.⁶⁵⁶⁶

Mudiraj describes the end of revenue farming, the sale of the right to collect revenue to contractors.⁶⁷ Revenue officers on graded salaries now dealt directly with the cultivators.⁶⁷ Annual records were kept of land, crops, occupants and rents.⁶⁷ The gazetteer says that about three-quarters of the old city had been rebuilt or renovated since his ministry.⁶⁸

Mahbub Ali Khan took full powers from the Viceroy, Lord Ripon, on 5 February 1884.⁶⁹ Later ministers were Salar Jang II, Sir Asman Jah, Sir Vikar-ul-Umara and, from 1901, the Peshkar Kishen Pershad, Chandu Lal’s descendant.⁶⁴⁷⁰ In 1892 a code known as the Kanuncha-i-Mubarak was issued to guide the minister.⁶⁴

The Residency and the Berar question

The British Resident at Hyderabad lived in the Residency across the Musi from the old city, built between 1800 and about 1807. He had civil and criminal jurisdiction (legal authority) over the Residency bazaars around it.⁷¹⁷² Their population was 16,904 in 1901.⁷¹⁷² Campbell lists the Residents from the first envoy, Mr Holland, who reached Hyderabad on 16 April 1779.¹² The treaty collection says a Resident was first posted in 1788.⁷³

Berar was the longest dispute between the Nizams and the British. The treaty of 1853 assigned it, with Osmanabad and the Raichur Doab, to pay the Contingent and the interest on the Nizam’s debt. Any surplus was to be paid to him. That of 1860 restored the other districts but left Berar in British trust, with no accounts to be rendered.⁷⁴⁷⁵

Gribble’s second volume, completed by his daughter, takes the Nizam’s side.⁷⁶⁷⁷ It quotes Lord Dalhousie admitting in 1852 that he “could not honestly argue that there was any other warrant than that of practice for upholding the Contingent”.⁷⁶⁷⁷ It calls the debt of 1853 an “alleged debt”.⁷⁶⁷⁷ It points out that the British had kept the excise revenues of the Secunderabad and Jalna cantonments for forty-one years.⁷⁶⁷⁷

It also quotes the Resident Colonel Davidson, writing in 1860.⁷⁷ He thought that “we had no just claim on the Nizam for the present debt of 43 lakhs”, had the money demands of the two Governments been fairly dealt with.⁷⁷

On 5 November 1902 the Nizam’s government leased the Assigned Districts to the British in perpetuity (for ever) for a fixed rent of 25 lakhs a year.⁷⁸⁶⁴ The Contingent was abolished, and the Nizam’s sovereignty was recognised by the annual hoisting of his flag.⁷⁸⁶⁴ Pendlebury notes that the settlement “did not cause universal satisfaction”.¹¹

Jagirs, paigahs and samasthans

A large part of the state was not governed directly. The Imperial Gazetteer says that in 1901 the jagirs and samasthans (tributary estates) covered 24,400 square miles, with 3,259,000 people.⁷⁹

The largest estates were the three paigahs of the Shams-ul-Umara family, descended from an officer who came south with Asaf Jah.⁷⁹⁸⁰ In 1901 they comprised 23 taluks and 1,273 villages and yielded about 40 lakhs a year.⁷⁹⁸⁰ The others included the estate of the Salar Jang family and those of Kishen Pershad and other nobles.⁷⁹⁸⁰

According to the state’s administration report for 1948–50, the paigahs, samasthans and jagirs together still made up nearly a third of the state’s area.⁸¹ The Nizam’s own estates made up a further tenth.⁸¹

The samasthans were old Hindu chiefships, mostly in the Telugu south of the state. The Imperial Gazetteer names the chief ones as Gadwal, Amarchinta, Wanaparthy, Jatprole and Palvancha.⁷⁹ It names smaller ones at Gopalpet, Narayanpur, Anegundi, Gurgunta and in Medak.⁷⁹

It says Gadwal “existed long before the foundation of the Hyderabad State” and once struck its own coin.⁸²⁸³ Its fort was begun about 1703 and finished in 1710, and it paid a tribute of Rs 86,840.⁸²⁸³ The treaty collection gives the Raja of Gadwal’s tribute as Rs 1,15,000.⁸⁴ It calls him “practically independent in his internal administration”.⁸⁴

The Palvancha family traced its title of Ashwarao to the Kakatiya king Prataparudra.⁸³⁸⁵ It held the estate from 1324.⁸³⁸⁵ It received a fresh sanad (grant) from the Nizam in 1798, on condition of keeping 2,000 horse and 3,000 foot.⁸³⁸⁵ Salar Jang settled its quarrels in 1858.⁸³⁸⁵

The Jatprole estate, with its seat at Kollapur, passed by adoption to a family from Pakhal in the late eighteenth century.⁸³⁸⁶ In 1831 its holder took the Jatprole pargana (revenue district) from the Nizam at a fixed rent of Rs 70,000.⁸³⁸⁶ Up to 1727 the Wanaparthy rajas had their seat at Sugur.⁸³⁸⁶

The coinage of the state reflected the same mixture. A note on the Hyderabad Museum’s coin cabinet appeared in the Archaeological Department’s report for 1920–21.⁸⁷ It says the silver coins found as treasure trove included “Chandore, Gopalpet and Gadwal rupees of the local mintage”.⁸⁷ These “were current in the Dominions before the introduction of the Halli Sicca rupees”.⁸⁷

The department’s report for 1924–25 describes a hoard that “consisted solely of old Hali Siccas”.⁸⁸ It held 46 coins of Sikandar Jah, 131 of Nasir-ud-daula, 4 of Afzal-ud-daula and one of the late Nizam.⁸⁸ Each ruler’s coins were marked with an initial letter, and the dates ran from AH 1226 (AH is the Islamic way of counting years) to 1309.⁸⁸

Telangana in the Nizam’s Dominions

The Imperial Gazetteer says that the Telugu-speaking people “constitute the most numerous section” of the population of the state “even to the present day”.⁸⁹ It notes that the revenue inspector (girdavar) was found only in the Telingana districts.⁹⁰ There, remissions (cuts in the revenue due) were given on wet cultivation when rain failed or tanks breached.⁹⁰ Mudiraj describes Telingana as the part of the state “in which the Telugu speaking population for the most part dwells”.⁹¹

The 1931 census found Telugu the most widely spoken language, covering nearly half the state.⁷ Urdu, which the census called “the cultural and official language of the State”, was the language of a minority.⁹²

Districts and the revenue survey, 1866–1905

Regular districts were first formed in 1865–66.⁹³ Revenue farming, in which contractors bid for the right to collect a taluk’s revenue, then came to an end in the Telugu districts.⁹⁴⁹⁵ The Imperial Gazetteer of 1909 traces this change district by district for Nalgonda, Medak, Mahbubnagar and Nizamabad.^96979495

An accurate survey of the land began in Aurangabad district about 1876.⁹³ It used English acres.⁹³ The Aurangabad and Gulbarga divisions were surveyed and settled by the end of 1894.⁹³ The Bidar and Warangal divisions, which held most of the Telugu districts, followed by 1904 and 1905.⁹³⁹⁸ Only Adilabad and some taluks of Karimnagar were still unsurveyed in 1909.⁹³ In Mahbubnagar the survey found more than twice the farm land shown in the old accounts.⁹⁴

The state was divided into four subas (divisions), fifteen districts and one sub-district, plus the Nizam’s own district round the capital, Atraf-i-Balda.⁹⁹ Each suba had a Subahdar (commissioner) and each district a First Talukdar (district officer).⁹⁹ In 1905 the districts were redrawn.⁹⁹ The Medak Gulshanabad Division was formed, with its headquarters at Patancheru.⁹⁸ Adilabad became a full district, and Indur was renamed Nizamabad.¹⁰⁰¹⁰¹ The census of 1931 records that the subas were abolished in 1922 and set up again in 1929.¹⁰² The districts of Telangana as they stood then are shown on the map The districts of the Nizam’s Dominions.

Railways

The first railway in the state was the Nizam’s Guaranteed State Railway.¹⁰³ It opened from Wadi, on the Bombay–Madras line, to Secunderabad in 1874.¹⁰³ Eleven years later it reached Warangal and then Dornakal.¹⁰³¹⁰⁴ By 1909 its main line ran 310 miles to Vijayawada (then Bezwada), with a branch to the Singareni coalfield.¹⁰⁵ A company owned and ran it under a guarantee from the state.¹⁰⁵ A second line, the metre-gauge Hyderabad-Godavari Valley Railway, ran 391 miles north-west to Manmad.¹⁰⁵ It opened between 1899 and 1901.¹⁰⁵

On 1 April 1930 the Nizam’s government bought the railway company’s property for £8,300,000.¹⁰⁶ New lines followed in the 1920s.¹⁰⁷ A line from Karepalli to the Kothagudem coal mines opened in 1927.¹⁰⁷ The census of 1931 notes that it mostly carried pilgrims to Bhadrachalam, who had gone by cart before.¹⁰⁷ The Kazipet–Balharshah line, finished in 1929, shortened the journey between north and south India.¹⁰⁷

Famines

The Imperial Gazetteer lists eleven famines or scarcities in the nineteenth century.¹⁰⁸ There are no records of relief before 1876.¹⁰⁸

• 1876–77. The rains failed in Lingsugur, Raichur, Gulbarga, Bhir and Osmanabad districts.¹⁰⁸ In Nalgonda and Mahbubnagar there was no famine, the gazetteer says, but severe distress.¹⁰⁸ Relief works ran from October 1876 to November 1877.¹⁰⁸ The Mahbubnagar district article says thousands died there.¹⁰⁹
• 1899–1900. Less than half the usual rain fell in 1899.¹¹⁰ Famine was declared over 23,007 square miles.¹¹⁰ The census of 1901 showed the population had fallen by 394,898, in spite of relief costing more than two crores of rupees.¹¹⁰ The Government of India lent the state two crores for relief.¹¹⁰ The census of 1931 names Nalgonda among the districts that suffered most.¹¹¹
• 1918–20. Too much rain in 1327 Fasli (1917–18), high wartime prices and then failing rains caused famine in eight districts.¹¹² Six of them were Telugu districts: Warangal, Karimnagar, Adilabad, Medak, Nalgonda and Mahbubnagar.¹¹² The famine report gives the affected area as 12,643 square miles.¹¹² Relief cost Rs 64,22,067, not counting loans to farmers.¹¹³
• 1921. Parts of Warangal, Karimnagar, Nalgonda, Medak and Mahbubnagar were again declared famine-stricken.¹¹⁴

The famine report of 1901 includes a diagram of the numbers on relief in 1899–1900.¹¹⁵

The twentieth century

The 1931 census of Hyderabad opens with a portrait of the reigning Nizam, Mir Osman Ali Khan.¹¹⁶ At the end of September 1908, just before his accession, the Musi flooded and carried away arches of three of the city’s bridges.⁶⁸

M. Visvesvaraya planned a reservoir after the flood, and it was begun in 1912–13 to protect the city and supply it with water.¹¹⁷¹¹⁸ It became the Osman Sagar, and a second dam formed the Himayat Sagar.¹¹⁷¹¹⁸ A City Improvement Board was set up in 1914.¹¹⁸

During the Nizam’s direct rule, from 1914 to 1919, a new High Court was built, and the Osmania General Hospital was completed in 1924–25.¹¹⁹¹²⁰ The census records that he founded Osmania University by charter in 1918.⁹² Teaching was in Urdu, with English compulsory.⁹² Mudiraj prints the Nizam’s order of 26 April 1917 founding the university “in commemoration of my accession to the throne”.¹²¹¹²²

In November 1919 the Nizam ended his direct rule and set up an Executive Council.¹²³ It had a President, seven ordinary members and one extra member without a portfolio (charge of a department).¹²⁴ Sir Ali Imam, a former judge of the Patna High Court, became its first President.¹²⁵ At the opening durbar on 21 November 1919 the Nizam explained the change.¹²⁶ He said that most past prime ministers had undermined the authority of the Nizams.¹²⁶ He also said the old system of one minister had failed.¹²⁷ The Finance Member of the first Council was Nawab Sir Hyder Nawaz Jung, better known as Akbar Hydari.¹²⁸¹²⁹

A Telugu cultural movement grew in Telangana at the same time. The Hyderabad State committee’s history of the freedom movement (1957) describes it, and its account is summarised here. Telugu journals such as Dina Vartamani began to appear in the 1890s.¹³⁰

The Sri Krishnadevaraya Andhra Bhasha Nilayam, a Telugu library, opened in Sultan Bazaar, Hyderabad, on 1 September 1901.¹³¹¹³² It was set up through the efforts of the Raja of Munagala, Komarraju Lakshmana Rao, Ravichettu Ranga Rao and others.¹³¹¹³² It was followed by the Rajaraja Narendra Andhra Bhasha Nilayam at Warangal in 1904 and the Andhra Samvardhini library at Secunderabad in 1905.¹³¹¹³²

Of the 560 publications registered in the state in 1932–33, 39 were in Telugu and 369 in Urdu.¹³³ The later Telugu movements in Hyderabad State are described on the Movements page.

Hyderabad and India, 1938–1948

Regani’s history of the freedom movement, written from the Congress side, calls 1938 the year of the first popular political struggle in the state.¹³⁴ In 1938, she says, the government, then led by Akbar Hydari, banned the new Hyderabad State Congress.¹³⁵ The ban was lifted only in 1946.¹³⁶ In 1942, the police history of 1961 records, the Quit India campaign led to only 266 arrests in the whole state.¹³⁷ The post of British Resident ended on 1 August 1947.¹³⁸ These campaigns are described on the Movements page.

When India became independent on 15 August 1947, the Nizam declared that Hyderabad would stay independent of both India and Pakistan.¹³⁹ His government signed a Standstill Agreement with India on 29 November 1947.¹⁴⁰ The White Paper on Indian States (1950) says it gave India control of Hyderabad’s defence, external affairs and communications.¹⁴¹ It says the agreement amounted in effect to accession in those three subjects.¹⁴¹ It stayed in force until the new Constitution of India took effect in 1950.¹⁴¹

Two readings of the agreement

The two sides understood the agreement differently.¹⁴² A confidential report of the United States State Department, dated 16 August 1948, summed up their positions.¹⁴³

• Hyderabad’s case. The Nizam’s government held that when British paramountcy (overlordship) ended in 1947, the princely states became fully sovereign.¹⁴³ Hyderabad could therefore join neither dominion and could seek recognition abroad.¹⁴³ It treated the agreement as a breathing space before full independence, the report says.¹⁴²
• India’s case. The Government of India held that the end of paramountcy could not undo the close political and economic links between the states and the rest of India.¹⁴³ It saw the agreement as a short period before Hyderabad joined India for good.¹⁴²

The Razakars

The Ittehad-ul-Muslimeen, the Muslim political party of Hyderabad, raised armed volunteers called Razakars under its president, Qasim Razvi.¹⁴⁴ Regani says that by November 1947 even government figures counted 50,000 of them.¹⁴⁴ The US report describes them as a semi-military wing meant to stop any popular revolt and to frighten Hindus.¹⁴⁵ Regani lists many Razakar raids on villages in 1948, and also clashes in which village squads attacked customs posts and police.¹⁴⁶¹⁴⁷ She writes from the Congress side.¹⁴⁶

Mir Laik Ali became Prime Minister in December 1947.¹⁴⁰ In May and June 1948 his team and the Government of India drew up a draft agreement.¹⁴⁸ It covered defence, foreign affairs, the disbanding of the Razakars and responsible government.¹⁴⁹ The Nizam rejected it.¹⁵⁰ The US report says Laik Ali had accepted the draft and spoke against it only after the Nizam’s refusal.¹⁵⁰ Regani instead blames Laik Ali for raising new demands.¹⁵¹ Hyderabad then turned to the United Nations Security Council.¹⁵²

The Police Action, 13–17 September 1948

Indian troops entered the state early on 13 September 1948.¹⁵³ The operation was named Operation Polo and became known as the Police Action.¹⁵⁴ J. N. Chaudhuri commanded the troops.¹⁵⁴ The main force came along the road from Solapur and a second along the road from Vijayawada.¹⁵⁴ Regani says the Hyderabad forces resisted firmly only for two days.¹⁵⁴ On 17 September Laik Ali resigned, and the Nizam ordered a ceasefire and the disbanding of the Razakars.¹⁵⁵ He also withdrew Hyderabad’s case from the United Nations.¹⁵⁵

The event was described in very different words at the time.¹⁵⁶¹⁵⁷

• The new government’s publicity, Hyderabad Reborn (1949), says the Government of India sent its forces in answer to a call from the people.¹⁵⁶
• In the British House of Lords on 14 September 1948, the Leader of the Opposition, the Marquess of Salisbury, called it an invasion of the territory of an old ally.¹⁵⁷ He asked whether the Nizam was being given the free choice promised in 1947.¹⁵⁷
• Replying for the British government, Viscount Addison said it deplored the situation.¹⁵⁸ He said that under the Standstill Agreement India was responsible for Hyderabad’s external relations, so Britain could not intervene.¹⁵⁸ He denied that Britain had blocked Hyderabad’s appeal to the United Nations.¹⁵⁸

The sources used here give no full count of the dead. The census of 1951 records that many Hindus had left the state in the months before the operation.¹⁵⁹ It says that afterwards the lives of Muslims were badly disturbed, partly by revenge attacks.¹⁵⁹ The peasant struggle in Telangana went on after 1948; its later course is told on the Movements page.¹⁶⁰

The end of the state

Mir Osman Ali Khan’s government ended in September 1948, when the Indian Army entered the state and a military governor took charge.² The state’s administration report for 1948–50 begins its account in the middle of September 1948.¹⁶¹ The state was then run by a Military Governor and a cabinet nominated by the Government of India.¹⁶¹ A Chief Minister replaced them on 1 December 1949.¹⁶¹

By its account the Nizam’s own estates were taken over in 1949, and the jagirs were abolished by a regulation of 15 August 1949.⁸¹¹⁶² The integration of Hyderabad and the Telangana armed struggle of the same years are described on the Movements page.

The Nizams from Nizam Ali Khan onwards were buried in the courtyard of the Mecca Masjid in Hyderabad.¹⁶³¹⁶⁴ See also Mughals, Asaf Jahis & the British.

Rulers

The reign chart at the top of this page shows the ten Nizams in the order the Imperial Gazetteer gives.¹ Asaf Jah is shown from 1724, when he became independent. He had been viceroy of the Deccan from 1713.¹² Campbell’s list of the Nizams has the same order but dates Asaf Jah’s accession to 1712.¹²

The family itself did not count Nasir Jang, Muzaffar Jang and Salabat Jang.¹⁶⁵ As Mudiraj puts it, if they had been counted, “Nizam Ali Khan would have been known as the fifth Nizam and not the second”.¹⁶⁵ Bilgrami accordingly numbers Mahbub Ali Khan Asaf Jah VI and Mir Osman Ali Khan Asaf Jah VII.¹⁶⁶¹⁶⁷

The dates for Nasir Jang, Muzaffar Jang and Salabat Jang are given differently in the sources. The Hyderabad gazetteer gives only the order of events; the years 1750 and 1751 come from the Madras and Godavari gazetteers.²⁸¹⁶⁸ Briggs dates Nasir Jang’s death to 5 December 1750 and Gribble to 14 December. Briggs puts Muzaffar Jang’s death at the end of January 1751.^2616927 Mudiraj dates Nizam Ali’s reign 1763–1805, against 1761–1803 in the other sources.¹⁷⁰¹⁷¹ Mahbub Ali Khan’s death in AH 1329 (1911) is taken from the chronogram on his grave.¹⁶³¹⁶⁴

Footnotes

1. Imperial Gazetteer of India: Hyderabad State (1909), p. 15 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹ ↩¹⁰

2. Sarojini Regani, Highlights of the Freedom Movement in Andhra Pradesh (1956), pp. 232–234 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

3. Gribble, History of the Deccan, Vol. II (1924), p. 2 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

4. G. B. Malleson, History of the French in India (1868), p. 370 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

5. Aitchison, Treaties, Vol. IX (1909), p. 2 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

6. Aitchison, Treaties, Vol. IX (1909), p. 5 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹

7. Census of India 1931, Vol. XXIII, Part I (1933), p. 222 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

8. C. U. Aitchison, A Collection of Treaties, Engagements and Sanads, Vol. IX (1909), p. 1 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

9. Henry George Briggs, The Nizam, Vol. I (1861), pp. 39–41 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

10. J. D. B. Gribble (ed. M. Pendlebury), A History of the Deccan, Vol. II (1924), preface, p. vii (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

11. Gribble, History of the Deccan, Vol. II (1924), preface, p. viii (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

12. Campbell, Glimpses of the Nizam’s Dominions (1898), p. 126 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷

13. Mudiraj, Pictorial Hyderabad (1929), p. 51 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

14. J. D. B. Gribble, A History of the Deccan, Vol. I (1896), pp. 374–376 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

15. Gribble, History of the Deccan, Vol. I (1896), p. 376 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

16. W. Francis, Madras District Gazetteers: Anantapur (1905), p. 22 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

17. William Irvine, Later Mughals, Vol. II (1922), p. 145 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

18. A. Claude Campbell, Glimpses of the Nizam’s Dominions (1898), pp. 22, 214 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

19. Bilgrami, Landmarks of the Deccan (1927), p. 88 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

20. Bilgrami, Landmarks of the Deccan (1927), p. 89 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

21. Gribble, History of the Deccan, Vol. I (1896), pp. 377–378 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸

22. Gribble, History of the Deccan, Vol. II (1924), p. 6 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

23. Mudiraj, Pictorial Hyderabad (1929), p. 55 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

24. Imperial Gazetteer: Hyderabad (1909), p. 213 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

25. Gribble, History of the Deccan, Vol. II (1924), p. 15 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

26. Briggs, The Nizam (1861), p. 56 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

27. Briggs, The Nizam (1861), p. 57 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

28. Imperial Gazetteer: Madras, Vol. I (1908), p. 185 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

29. Gribble, History of the Deccan, Vol. II (1924), p. 29 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

30. Gribble, History of the Deccan, Vol. II (1924), p. 30 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

31. Gribble, History of the Deccan, Vol. II (1924), p. 38 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

32. Malleson, History of the French in India (1868), pp. 474–475 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

33. Imperial Gazetteer: Hyderabad (1909), p. 115 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

34. Hemingway, Godavari (1907), p. 32 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

35. Imperial Gazetteer: Hyderabad (1909), p. 16 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

36. Gribble, History of the Deccan, Vol. II (1924), p. 59 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

37. Briggs, The Nizam (1861), p. 64 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

38. Imperial Gazetteer: Hyderabad (1909), pp. 16–17 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹ ↩¹⁰ ↩¹¹ ↩¹² ↩¹³ ↩¹⁴

39. Briggs, The Nizam (1861), p. 227 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)); Imperial Gazetteer of India: Madras, Vol. I (1908), pp. 185–186 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

40. Briggs, The Nizam (1861), p. 234 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

41. Hemingway, Godavari (1907), p. 34 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

42. Imperial Gazetteer: Madras, Vol. I (1908), p. 186 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

43. Aitchison, Treaties, Vol. IX (1909), p. 7 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

44. Aitchison, Treaties, Vol. IX (1909), p. 4 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

45. Mudiraj, Pictorial Hyderabad (1929), p. 60 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

46. Francis, Anantapur (1905), p. 23 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

47. Imperial Gazetteer of India: Madras, Vol. I (1908), pp. 184–185 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

48. Aitchison, Treaties, Vol. IX (1909), p. 6 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

49. Briggs, The Nizam (1861), pp. 82–83 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

50. Campbell, Glimpses of the Nizam’s Dominions (1898), p. 125 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

51. Imperial Gazetteer: Hyderabad (1909), p. 208 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

52. Mudiraj, Pictorial Hyderabad (1929), p. 52 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

53. Campbell, Glimpses of the Nizam’s Dominions (1898), p. 374 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

54. Gribble, History of the Deccan, Vol. II (1924), pp. 36–37 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

55. Briggs, The Nizam (1861), p. 135 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

56. Imperial Gazetteer: Hyderabad (1909), p. 209 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

57. Imperial Gazetteer: Hyderabad (1909), pp. 17–18 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

58. Campbell, Glimpses of the Nizam’s Dominions (1898), pp. 127–128 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

59. Aitchison, Treaties, Vol. IX (1909), p. 8 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

60. Campbell, Glimpses of the Nizam’s Dominions (1898), p. 128 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

61. The Freedom Struggle in Hyderabad, Vol. II (1956), pp. 63–64 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸

62. Campbell, Glimpses of the Nizam’s Dominions (1898), pp. 38–39 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

63. Campbell, Glimpses of the Nizam’s Dominions (1898), p. 39 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

64. Imperial Gazetteer: Hyderabad (1909), pp. 18–19 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

65. Syed Hossain Bilgrami, A Memoir of Sir Salar Jung (1883), p. 16 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

66. Campbell, Glimpses of the Nizam’s Dominions (1898), p. 37 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

67. Mudiraj, Pictorial Hyderabad (1929), p. 68 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

68. Imperial Gazetteer: Hyderabad (1909), p. 119 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

69. Aitchison, Treaties, Vol. IX (1909), p. 14 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

70. Campbell, Glimpses of the Nizam’s Dominions (1898), p. 319 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

71. Imperial Gazetteer: Hyderabad (1909), p. 117 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

72. Imperial Gazetteer: Hyderabad (1909), p. 118 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

73. Aitchison, Treaties, Vol. IX (1909), p. 3 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

74. Aitchison, Treaties, Vol. IX (1909), p. 9 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

75. Aitchison, Treaties, Vol. IX (1909), p. 10 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

76. Gribble, History of the Deccan, Vol. II (1924), p. 211 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

77. Gribble, History of the Deccan, Vol. II (1924), p. 226 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

78. Aitchison, Treaties, Vol. IX (1909), p. 17 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

79. Imperial Gazetteer: Hyderabad (1909), p. 52 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

80. Imperial Gazetteer: Hyderabad (1909), pp. 293–294 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

81. Report on the Administration of the Hyderabad State (1950), p. 3 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

82. Imperial Gazetteer: Hyderabad (1909), p. 296 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

83. Imperial Gazetteer: Hyderabad (1909), p. 297 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹

84. Aitchison, Treaties, Vol. IX (1909), p. 19 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

85. Imperial Gazetteer: Hyderabad (1909), p. 298 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

86. Imperial Gazetteer: Hyderabad (1909), p. 299 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

87. Annual Report of the Archaeological Department of H.E.H. the Nizam’s Dominions, 1330 F. (1920–21) (1923), Appendix A (T. Sreenivas, “Note on Coins in the Cabinet of the Hyderabad Museum”), p. 24 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

88. Report of the Archaeological Department of H.E.H. the Nizam’s Dominions, 1334 F. (1924–25) (1926), p. 18 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

89. Imperial Gazetteer: Hyderabad (1909), p. 10 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

90. Imperial Gazetteer: Hyderabad (1909), p. 51 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

91. K. Krishnaswamy Mudiraj, Pictorial Hyderabad, Vol. I (1929), p. 1 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

92. Census of India 1931, Vol. XXIII, Part I (1933), pp. 216–217 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

93. Imperial Gazetteer: Hyderabad (1909), p. 80 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

94. Imperial Gazetteer: Hyderabad (1909), pp. 146–147 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

95. Imperial Gazetteer: Hyderabad (1909), pp. 156–157 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

96. Imperial Gazetteer: Hyderabad (1909), p. 128 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

97. Imperial Gazetteer: Hyderabad (1909), p. 137 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

98. Imperial Gazetteer: Hyderabad (1909), p. 121 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

99. Imperial Gazetteer: Hyderabad (1909), p. 51 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

100. Imperial Gazetteer: Hyderabad (1909), p. 122 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

101. Imperial Gazetteer: Hyderabad (1909), pp. 184–185 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

102. Census of India 1931, Vol. XXIII, Part I (1933), p. 1 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

103. Imperial Gazetteer: Hyderabad (1909), p. 46 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

104. Imperial Gazetteer: Hyderabad (1909), p. 47 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

105. Imperial Gazetteer: Hyderabad (1909), p. 45 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

106. Census of India 1931, Vol. XXIII, Part I (1933), p. 32 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

107. Census of India 1931, Vol. XXIII, Part I (1933), p. 29 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

108. Imperial Gazetteer: Hyderabad (1909), p. 48 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

109. Imperial Gazetteer: Hyderabad (1909), p. 146 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

110. Imperial Gazetteer: Hyderabad (1909), p. 49 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

111. Census of India 1931, Vol. XXIII, Part I (1933), p. 19 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

112. Report on the Famine Relief Operations in H.E.H. the Nizam’s Dominions during 1918–19 and 1919–20 (1923), p. 1 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

113. Famine Relief Operations, 1918–20 (1923), p. 4 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

114. Census of India 1931, Vol. XXIII, Part I (1933), p. 20 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

115. A. J. Dunlop, Report on the Famine Relief Operations in His Highness the Nizam’s Dominions during 1309 Fasli (1899–1900), Vol. I (1901), diagram (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

116. Census of India 1931, Vol. XXIII: H.E.H. the Nizam’s Dominions, Part I: Report (1933), frontispiece (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

117. Report on the Administration of H.H. the Nizam’s Dominions for 1322 Fasli (1912–13) (1915), p. 49 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

118. Mudiraj, Pictorial Hyderabad (1929), p. 101 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

119. Mudiraj, Pictorial Hyderabad (1929), p. 230 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

120. Report on the Administration of H.E.H. the Nizam’s Dominions, 1924–25 (1926), General Summary, p. i, and p. vii (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

121. Mudiraj, Pictorial Hyderabad (1929), p. 97 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

122. Mudiraj, Pictorial Hyderabad (1929), p. 99 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

123. K. Krishnaswamy Mudiraj, Pictorial Hyderabad, Vol. I (1929), p. 233 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

124. Mudiraj, Pictorial Hyderabad (1929), p. 234 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

125. Mudiraj, Pictorial Hyderabad (1929), p. 235 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

126. Mudiraj, Pictorial Hyderabad (1929), pp. 235–236 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

127. Mudiraj, Pictorial Hyderabad (1929), pp. 236–237 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

128. Mudiraj, Pictorial Hyderabad (1929), p. 239 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

129. Report on the Administration of H.E.H. the Nizam’s Dominions for 1342 Fasli (1932–33) (1935), p. 118 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

130. The Freedom Struggle in Hyderabad, Vol. III (1957), pp. 78–79 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

131. The Freedom Struggle in Hyderabad, Vol. III (1957), p. 151 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

132. The Freedom Struggle in Hyderabad, Vol. III (1957), p. 152 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

133. Report on the Administration of H.E.H. the Nizam’s Dominions for 1342 Fasli (1932–33) (1935), p. 116 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

134. Regani, Highlights of the Freedom Movement, p. 182 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

135. Sarojini Regani, Highlights of the Freedom Movement in Andhra Pradesh, p. 188 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

136. Regani, Highlights of the Freedom Movement, p. 197 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

137. The History of the Andhra Pradesh Police (1861–1961) (1961), p. 95 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

138. The History of the Andhra Pradesh Police (1961), p. 100 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

139. Regani, Highlights of the Freedom Movement, p. 199 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

140. Regani, Highlights of the Freedom Movement, p. 211 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

141. Ministry of States, White Paper on Indian States (revised edition, 1950), p. 113 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

142. The Problem of the Future Status of Hyderabad (1948), p. 11 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

143. Office of Intelligence Research, US Department of State, The Problem of the Future Status of Hyderabad (16 August 1948), p. 1 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

144. Regani, Highlights of the Freedom Movement, p. 206 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

145. The Problem of the Future Status of Hyderabad (1948), p. 8 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

146. Regani, Highlights of the Freedom Movement, p. 219 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

147. Regani, Highlights of the Freedom Movement, p. 220 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

148. Regani, Highlights of the Freedom Movement, p. 226 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

149. Regani, Highlights of the Freedom Movement, p. 227 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

150. The Problem of the Future Status of Hyderabad (1948), pp. 13–14 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

151. Regani, Highlights of the Freedom Movement, p. 228 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

152. Regani, Highlights of the Freedom Movement, p. 231 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

153. Regani, Highlights of the Freedom Movement, p. 232 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

154. Regani, Highlights of the Freedom Movement, p. 233 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

155. Regani, Highlights of the Freedom Movement, p. 234 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

156. Hyderabad Reborn (Government of Hyderabad, 1949), p. 13 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

157. House of Lords, Address in Reply to His Majesty’s Most Gracious Speech, HL Deb 14 September 1948, vol. 158, cc. 2–43, speech of the Marquess of Salisbury (printout p. 8) (parliament.uk↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

158. HL Deb 14 September 1948, vol. 158, cc. 2–43, reply of Viscount Addison (printout p. 15) (parliament.uk↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

159. Census of India, 1951, Vol. IX: Hyderabad, Part I-A: Report (1953), pp. 111–112 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

160. The History of the Andhra Pradesh Police (1961), p. 101 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

161. Report on the Administration of the Hyderabad State (1950), Introductory (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

162. Report on the Administration of the Hyderabad State (1950), p. 4 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

163. Imperial Gazetteer: Hyderabad (1909), p. 116 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)); Syed Ali Asgar Bilgrami, Landmarks of the Deccan (1927), pp. 36–39 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

164. Syed Ali Asgar Bilgrami, Landmarks of the Deccan (1927), pp. 36–39 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

165. Mudiraj, Pictorial Hyderabad (1929), p. 57 (printed “37”) (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

166. Bilgrami, Landmarks of the Deccan (1927), p. 37 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

167. Bilgrami, Landmarks of the Deccan (1927), p. 95 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

168. F. R. Hemingway, Madras District Gazetteers: Godavari, Vol. I (1907), p. 30 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

169. Gribble, History of the Deccan, Vol. II (1924), p. 26 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

170. Mudiraj, Pictorial Hyderabad (1929), p. 58 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

171. Mudiraj, Pictorial Hyderabad (1929), p. 61 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩