East India Company

The East India Company was chartered in London in 1600.¹²³ It came to the Telugu coast as a trader in 1611, and left it as a government in 1858.¹²³ For its first hundred and fifty years it held a few factories (trading posts), under the protection of the kings of Golconda and then of the Mughals.¹²³ In the next hundred years it took the whole coast from Srikakulam (then Chicacole) to Nellore, and the uplands of Rayalaseema.¹²³ Telangana stayed with the Nizam.¹²³

This page follows the Company in the Telugu districts.¹²³ The French, who held the coast before it, have their own page, French East India Company, as have the Dutch. The Nizams’ side of the treaties is on the Asaf Jahis page. See British Residency, Hyderabad for the Company’s Resident at Hyderabad.

The sources

The Company’s own records lie behind most accounts.⁴⁵ The fifth report of the House of Commons committee on the Company’s affairs (1812) was reprinted by W. K. Firminger in 1917–18.⁴⁵ It prints James Grant’s Political Survey of the Northern Circars (1784) and Munro’s reports on the Ceded Districts.⁴⁵ It also prints a table of every acquisition of the Madras Presidency, with its date.⁴⁵

The district manuals and gazetteers draw on the records kept in the Collectors’ offices.⁶⁷⁸ They cover Godavari (Morris, 1878; Hemingway, 1907), Kistna (Mackenzie, 1883), Visakhapatnam (then Vizagapatam; Francis, 1907), Bellary (Francis, 1904) and North Arcot (Stuart, 1895).⁶⁷⁸ The treaties are in C. U. Aitchison’s Collection of Treaties (Vol. VIII, 1892).⁹

The factories, 1611–1757

The Fifth Report’s table says that the English “landed at Pettipolee, August 20th, 1611”, from the Globe under Captain Hippon.¹ It calls this “the first place at which the English commenced to trade on the Eastern Coast of the continent of India”.¹ It says that the first English vessel reached Machilipatnam (then Masulipatam) on 31 August 1611.¹ The table identifies Pettipolee as Nizampatnam.¹ Morris’s Godavari manual says Pettapollee was “probably Peddapalli” or Nizampatnam (then Nizampatam).⁶

The local governor and the Dutch troubled the factors.¹⁰¹¹⁴ So in 1628 they moved to Armagon on the Nellore coast, where a factory had been founded in 1625–26.¹⁰¹¹⁴ In November 1632 the King of Golconda granted a farman (royal order).¹⁰¹¹⁴ It let them return to Machilipatnam and trade at his other ports.¹⁰¹¹⁴ Morris says “this document was called the Golden Firman”.¹⁰¹¹ The Fifth Report calls it the “Golden Phurmaund”.⁴

A factory at Viravasaram, near Narasapur, followed in 1634–35.¹¹² The Fifth Report lists Petapoli as dissolved and re-settled several times.¹¹² See Machilipatnam and Nizampatnam.

The Fifth Report says that in 1639 the English obtained a grant of a station at Madras.⁴¹² The grantor was Sri Ranga Raya, “descendant of the Vijayanagar Kings”, reigning at Chandragiri.⁴¹² The grant was “obtained for the Company by the local Governor or Naick, Damarla Venkatadri”.⁴¹² He asked that the place be called Chennappa-patnam, “after his father Kari Chennappa”.⁴¹² Francis Day, of the Machilipatnam council and head of the factory at Armagon, negotiated it.⁴¹² Armagon was abandoned in 1641.⁴¹²

William Foster edited the Company’s records in 1912.¹³¹⁴¹⁵ He says that the Dutch records call the Nayak Damarla Venkatappa, “lord of from twelve to fifteen thousand soldiers”.¹³¹⁴¹⁵ He was the chief supporter of the Raja of Chandragiri.¹³¹⁴¹⁵ Day landed at Madraspatam on 27 July 1639.¹³¹⁴¹⁵ The Nayak’s grant “seems to have been dated August 22, 1639”.¹³¹⁴¹⁵ It promised to build the fort, let the English govern the town for two years, and gave them freedom from customs and the right to coin.¹³¹⁴¹⁵

After Golconda fell, the rent for Madras became an asset of the Mughal empire.¹² Madras, the seat of the Company’s government on the coast, lies outside the Telugu country. See Chandragiri.

Machilipatnam remained the Company’s chief factory in the north.¹⁶¹⁷¹⁸ It had subordinate stations at Madapollam, Viravasaram and Petapoli.¹⁶¹⁷¹⁸ The Fifth Report dates the Madapollam factory to December 1679.¹⁶ Hemingway’s gazetteer says it “was founded about 1678”.¹⁷¹⁸

The Madras Agent, Streynsham Master, toured the factories in 1679.¹⁹²⁰ That July, Madapollam was made independent of Machilipatnam.¹⁹²⁰ Morris notes that the cloths of the place “are still called in the English market ‘Madapollams’”.¹⁹²⁰

In 1682 the Company settled at Visakhapatnam, largely, Francis says, from fear of interlopers (rival traders).²¹²² The Fifth Report had found no earlier record, and gives 1683.²³

In 1689, during the Company’s war with Aurangzeb, the Machilipatnam factory was seized.^24252627 The Visakhapatnam factors were killed.^24252627 In 1690 a cowle (grant) from the Mughal general Zulfikar Khan confirmed the factories at “Metchlepatam, Madapollam, Vizagapatam, &c.”.^24252627

Injaram, near Yanam, was settled from Visakhapatnam in 1708, and re-established in 1722.^2728293031 Bendamurlanka and Nilapalli, on the Godavari mouths, were settled in November 1751.^2728293031 See Visakhapatnam.

Cloth

The factories existed to buy cloth.³²²⁹ Orme says that Madapollam, Bendamurlanka and Injaram “annually furnished 700 bales for the Company’s market in England”.³² Early in the eighteenth century, Captain Hamilton thought Injaram made “the best and finest longcloth in all India”.²⁹

Morris gives the Company’s spending on muslins and cloth in the Godavari country in the twenty-four years before the factories were closed.³³ On average it spent seven lakhs of rupees a year, and in one year more than fourteen lakhs.³³

Morris says the mercantile establishments were abolished in 1829, and the Imperial Gazetteer says 1830.²⁷³³³⁴ The weavers’ trade “was almost annihilated”.²⁷³³ Hemingway gives the value of piece-goods exported from the district as fourteen lakhs in 1825, and less than two lakhs in 1842.³⁵ See Crafts and textiles.

From the French war to the five Circars, 1757–1768

In 1757 Bussy’s French troops took the factories at Madapollam, Bendamurlanka, Injaram and Visakhapatnam.³²⁴ In 1758 Clive sent Colonel Francis Forde from Bengal.³²⁴ Forde beat the French at Condore in December and stormed Machilipatnam in April 1759, as told on the French East India Company page.³²⁴

By the treaty of May 1759 Salabat Jang gave the Company “the whole of the Circar of Masulipatam, with eight districts”.³⁶ He also gave “the Circar of Nizampatam, and the districts of Condavir and Wacalmanuer”.³⁶ These were given “as an enam (or free gift)”.³⁶

Orme reckoned the territory at 80 miles along the sea and 20 inland, with a revenue of 400,000 rupees.³⁷ The Fifth Report reckoned it at about 700 square miles and 3,50,000 rupees.³⁸ The Fifth Report explains that the “Kondavid” of the treaty was a pargana (sub-district) of fifty-two villages near Machilipatnam.³⁸ It was “not to be confounded with the large district of same name”.³⁸ The report adds the towns of Nilapalli, Bendamurlanka, Antarvedi and others on the Godavari mouths.³⁸

On 15 October 1759 Forde handed the government to John Andrews, the first Chief in Council at Machilipatnam.³⁹⁸

In August 1765 Clive obtained the diwani (revenue rights) of Bengal from the emperor Shah Alam.⁴⁰⁴¹ At the same time he obtained a farman for the five Northern Circars.⁴⁰⁴¹ It recited that Salabat Jang had given Srikakulam and the rest to the French without the emperor’s confirmation.⁴⁰⁴¹ It gave them to the Company “by way of enam or free gift (without the least participation of any person whatever in the same)”.⁴⁰⁴¹

The grant was proclaimed in the fort at Machilipatnam on 3 March 1766, and General Caillaud took Kondapalli.⁴¹ Nizam Ali Khan threatened war.⁴²⁴³ Then by the treaty of 12 November 1766, signed by Caillaud at Hyderabad, the Company promised him troops when he needed them.⁴²⁴³ In years when he did not, it would pay nine lakhs of rupees a year for the five Circars:⁴²⁴³

• five lakhs for Rajahmundry, Eluru (then Ellore) and Mustafanagar
• two lakhs each for Srikakulam and Murtazanagar (Guntur)⁴²⁴³

Murtazanagar was left to the Nizam’s brother Basalat Jang for his life.⁴²⁴³

The Nizam then joined Haidar Ali against the Company and was beaten.^9444546 After that, a new treaty dated 23 February 1768 at Fort St. George recognised the emperor’s grant and reduced the payment.^9444546 The Fifth Report’s table follows a Madras Regulation of 1802.⁴⁷ It treats this treaty as “the actual cession”, since the farman and the treaty of 1766 had had “no substantial operation”.⁴⁷

The yearly payment continued until it was capitalised (paid off in one sum).⁴⁸⁴⁶ According to Aitchison’s narrative, this was done “for a sum of Rupees 1,66,66,666”.⁴⁸⁴⁶ See Kondapalli, Rajahmundry, Eluru and Srikakulam.

Chiefs and Councils, and the Committee of Circuit

The Company did not at first govern the new Circars itself.⁴⁶⁷ The Godavari country was leased to Hussain Ali Khan.⁴⁶⁷ When his lease ended in 1769, “the agents of the old factories and their subordinates were converted into Provincial Chiefs and Councils”.⁴⁶⁷ The Rajahmundry and Eluru Circars were put under the Chief and Council of Machilipatnam.⁴⁶⁷ These men “for the next 25 years controlled the entire political, civil and revenue administration”.⁴⁶⁷ In the same year John Andrews was sent from Machilipatnam to be “the first Chief in Council” at Visakhapatnam.²¹

The Chiefs dealt with the zamindars (landholders) as owners of their estates, paying a peshkash (tribute) fixed by custom.⁷⁴⁹ The Muslim governors had held the havili lands round the towns directly.⁷⁴⁹ The Chiefs kept these lands under their own management.⁷⁴⁹

Hemingway says the zamindars lived in mud forts and kept armed retainers.⁴⁹ They took from the cultivator far more than his customary share.⁴⁹ Clauses bound them to keep only the militia “indispensably necessary”.⁴⁶ But the Board of Revenue complained in 1794 that these clauses had “never met the smallest attention from the zamindars”.⁴⁶

In 1775 the Court of Directors ordered a Committee of Circuit, five members of the Madras Council.⁵⁰ It was to inquire into the produce, people and revenues of the Circars.⁵⁰ In 1778 Governor Rumbold summoned the zamindars to Madras and made his own five-year settlement, and this interrupted the Committee.⁵⁰ It was reappointed in 1783.⁵⁰ It reported on the havili lands on 18 December 1786, and on the zamindaris (landholders’ estates) on 15 February 1787.⁵⁰

Hemingway says its reports “proved the inefficiency” of the Chiefs and Councils.⁵¹⁵² In 1794 “they and the other Chiefs and Councils in the Northern Circars were abolished, and the country was divided into Collectorates”.⁵¹⁵² A Board of Revenue had been set up at Madras in 1786.⁵¹

Guntur, 1788

Guntur, the fifth Circar, stayed with Basalat Jang.⁴⁴⁵³⁵⁴ The Madras government leased it from him in 1779, but the Governor-General disallowed the lease.⁴⁴⁵³⁵⁴ When Basalat Jang died in 1782, the Nizam’s officers kept it.⁴⁴⁵³⁵⁴

In 1788 a Resident was sent to Hyderabad for the first time.⁴⁴⁵⁵ The Nizam agreed to give Guntur up in September of that year.⁴⁴⁵⁵ The Kistna manual says that “thus did Guntur pass finally under the rule of the Company thirteen years after Lord Clive had obtained the sanads”.⁵⁵ The Fifth Report dates the sanad (grant) to 18 September 1788.⁴⁷ See Guntur.

Vizianagaram and Padmanabham, 1794

In the Visakhapatnam country, the Rajas of Vizianagaram had grown stronger than the Company.⁵⁶⁵⁷ The Raja Vijayarama Raju, adopted after 1759, and his half-brother Sitarama Raju controlled almost the whole district.⁵⁶⁵⁷ The Company settled a peshkash of three lakhs on their estate.⁵⁶⁵⁷ With its help they dispossessed the lesser zamindars.⁵⁶⁵⁷

By 1793 the Raja’s arrears had reached eight and a half lakhs.⁵⁸⁵⁹ On 2 August 1793 Colonel Prendergast took possession of the Vizianagaram fort.⁵⁸⁵⁹ The Raja was ordered to leave the district on a pension.⁵⁸⁵⁹ Instead he camped at Padmanabham, between Vizianagaram and Bheemunipatnam (then Bimlipatam).⁵⁸⁵⁹

Spies reported that he meant “to do as the Bobbili family did formerly”.⁶⁰⁶¹ At dawn on 10 July 1794 Prendergast attacked.⁶⁰⁶¹ “The Raja was killed, with many of his followers.”⁶⁰⁶¹ Of 309 dead on the Raja’s side, 208 were Rajputs, and forty of them lay round his body.⁶⁰⁶¹

Francis’s gazetteer calls Padmanabham “the Flodden of the Rajputs of Vizianagram”.⁶²⁶³ The Raja’s young son Narayana Raju received the estate.⁶²⁶³ In 1796 the dispossessed zamindars were given cowles restoring their lands.⁶²⁶³ See Vijayarama Raju II, Padmanabham and Vizianagaram.

The permanent settlement, 1802–1803

The Court of Directors pressed Madras to follow the permanent settlement made in Bengal in 1793.⁶⁴ In the Rajahmundry district in 1802–03, the existing zamindars were confirmed in their estates “in perpetuity on a peshkash which was generally fixed at two-thirds of the average gross collections”.⁶⁴ The Company’s own lands were divided into proprietary estates, or muttas, and sold by auction.⁶⁴ Regulation XXX of 1802 was meant to protect the under-tenants.⁶⁴

Francis says that in the Visakhapatnam district too the ancient zamindaris were handed back to their owners in perpetuity.⁶³ The havili land was sold in lots.⁶³

Hemingway judged the result bluntly: “This permanent settlement was a dismal failure.”⁶⁵ Estates fell into debt and were sold for arrears.⁶⁵ From 1813–14 the government began to buy them in.⁶⁵

Thomas Munro, as Governor in 1822, blamed the frequent disturbances on one duty of the government.⁶⁶ It had to enforce moneylenders’ decrees against zamindars.⁶⁶ By this, Munro wrote, “we are every day liable to be dragged into a petty warfare among unhealthy hills”.⁶⁶ See Governance.

The Ceded Districts and Thomas Munro, 1800–1807

The Rayalaseema country came to the Company by war and treaty.⁶⁷⁶⁸⁶⁹ The first piece was the Kangundi zamindari, part of the Baramahal ceded by Tipu Sultan in 1792.⁶⁷⁶⁸⁶⁹ In the same year the Company began to collect the tribute of the Kalahasti and Karvetinagar zamindars for the Nawab of Arcot.⁶⁷⁶⁸⁶⁹ In 1799 it took Punganur and Venkatagirikota from Tipu’s lands.⁶⁷⁶⁸⁶⁹

By the treaty of 12 October 1800, the Nizam ceded to the Company all the territory he had gained from Mysore in 1792 and 1799.⁷⁰² It yielded about 17,58,000 pagodas, and paid for an enlarged subsidiary force.⁷⁰²

The Bellary gazetteer says that the districts handed over, “Bellary, Anantapur, Cuddapah and part of Kurnool”, “are still known as ‘the Ceded districts’”.⁷¹ It says that “Sir Thomas (then Major) Munro was their first (and their most famous) ‘Principal Collector’”.⁷¹

The Fifth Report’s table calls it an error to speak of “the Ceded Districts and Kurnool”, as if Kurnool had been ceded separately.⁷² The Nawab of Kurnool’s tribute passed to the Company with the rest.⁷² See Nawabs of Kurnool, Kadapa, Bellary and Gooty.

Thomas Munro took charge at the end of 1800.⁷³⁷⁴ His biographer Bradshaw reckoned that there were then 30,000 armed peons in the districts, under some eighty poligars (local chiefs).⁷⁵

Munro wrote that the poligars “were almost constantly in rebellion”.⁷⁶ He wrote that “their reduction and rebellion were equally disastrous to the country”.⁷⁶ He assessed each at the highest peshkash he had ever paid.⁷⁶ With General Dugald Campbell’s troops and his own companies of armed peons, he reduced or dispossessed them within a year.⁷⁶

The Directors in 1804 asked for “more gentle measures”, and Munro defended himself in 1805.⁷⁷ In 1801–02 he brought in the kulwar or ryotwari settlement that he had used in Salem.⁷⁸ Under it “every ryot held his land immediately from the Government under a patta from the Collector”.⁷⁸ He surveyed the districts between 1802 and 1805.⁷⁸

Munro left in October 1807.⁷⁹ The Madras government then reported that the people had become as orderly as any of its subjects.⁷⁹ They had been, it said, “disunited hordes of lawless plunderers and freebooters”.⁷⁹ The Bellary gazetteer says the people called him their “father”.⁷⁹ The districts were then split into the collectorates of Bellary and Kadapa (then Cuddapah), and village leases were tried from 1809.⁷⁹ See Forts and warfare.

The Carnatic, Nellore and Kurnool

The Nawab of Arcot’s Telugu districts were Nellore and Ongole and the Palnad.⁷²⁸⁰ They came to the Company with the rest of the Carnatic by the treaty of 31 July 1801.⁷²⁸⁰ The story is on the Nawabs of the Carnatic page. The Kistna manual says the Palnad had until then been “nominally under the sovereignty of the Navab of Arcot”.⁵⁵

In 1839 the Nawab of Kurnool’s country was annexed, as told on the Nawabs of Kurnool page.³ The Imperial Gazetteer lists it among the later changes in the Presidency’s limits, with the purchase of Tranquebar from the Danes in 1845.³ See Nellore and Kurnool.

Famine and the anicuts

In 1832–33 came “the terrible drought, which is known among Europeans as ‘the Guntur Famine’ and among natives as ‘Nandana’”.⁸¹⁸² The Kistna manual says that it “covered the country with human bones from Ongole to Masulipatam”.⁸¹⁸² It adds that “for twenty years afterwards the cultivation in the Guntur district did not reach its previous limit”.⁸¹⁸² The loss of revenue in Guntur was estimated at 2,27,00,000 rupees.⁸¹⁸²

In the Godavari district the famine of 1833 followed a hurricane in 1832.³⁵ A special commissioner, Sir Henry Montgomery, reported in 1844 on the district’s decline.³⁵ Hemingway says his report led to the anicut (dam) at Dowlaishweram.³⁵

Major Arthur Cotton proposed the Godavari anicut.⁸³⁸⁴⁸⁵ The Board of Revenue backed it in April 1846, and the Madras government sanctioned it in September 1846.⁸³⁸⁴⁸⁵ Work began in earnest in April 1847.⁸³⁸⁴⁸⁵ Morris begins his account: “The District owes this invaluable boon to the genius of Sir Arthur Cotton.”⁸⁶

In 1852 the government recorded that the anicut “may now be said to have arrived at completion”.⁸⁷⁸⁸ By January 1853 it had sanctioned 15,34,952 rupees for the works.⁸⁷⁸⁸

On the Krishna, the Kistna manual says, Captain Lake made a plan “endorsed by Major (now Sir Arthur) Cotton”.⁸⁹⁹⁰⁹¹ It went to a committee in 1849, and the Directors sanctioned it on 5 January 1850.⁸⁹⁹⁰⁹¹ The anicut at Vijayawada (then Bezwada) was built under Captain Orr from 1852.⁸⁹⁹⁰⁹¹ It was finished in May 1855, at a cost of 7,48,765 rupees.⁸⁹⁹⁰⁹¹ The Collector had to force the labour for it from the villages.⁸⁹⁹⁰⁹¹ See Godavari delta works and Rajahmundry.

Forts and troops

The Company’s forts in the Telugu country were mostly old ones.⁹²⁹³ Machilipatnam was “regarded as the seat of Government of the Northern Circars”.⁹²⁹³ It was refortified after an engineer’s report of 1765.⁹²⁹³ The works were estimated at 60,004 pagodas, but had cost 97,274 by 1771.⁹²⁹³

Samalkot near Kakinada (then Cocanada) had barracks from 1786.⁹⁴ It was then “the principal garrison of the English in the Circar of Rajahmundry”.⁹⁴ Its fort was pulled down in 1838.⁹⁴

In the Ceded Districts the force at Bellary under Dugald Campbell supported the civil officers.⁷¹ From 1798 the Company’s subsidiary force at Hyderabad stood behind the Nizam.⁷⁰ After 1800 the Ceded Districts paid for it.⁷⁰ See Asaf Jahis.

Coins

The Company coined little in the Telugu districts.¹⁸²⁷ In 1678 the Madras council hoped the King of Golconda would grant “leave to coin rupees and pice at Madras, to be current throughout the King of Golconda’s dominions”.¹⁸²⁷ Firmans of 1692 gave the right to coin.¹⁸²⁷ The Visakhapatnam factory asked in 1731 and 1753 for leave to strike copper.⁹⁵ But “no mint appears to have been established”.⁹⁵

Edgar Thurston wrote a history of the Company’s coinage.⁹⁶⁹⁷ He quotes William Marsden on a double rupee of A.H. 1194 (1780; A.H. is the Islamic way of counting years).⁹⁶⁹⁷ It was “struck at Mechli-pattan (Masulipatam) in the 21st year of the auspicious reign”.⁹⁶⁹⁷ It was “coined at a city within the English jurisdiction on the Coast of Coromandel”.⁹⁶⁹⁷

Thurston lists the coins melted at the Madras mint in 1807–13.⁹⁸⁹⁹ The list includes Bunder and “Cacanadie” pagodas, and Bunder, “Kaukenadoo” and Adoni rupees.⁹⁸⁹⁹ Munro counted twenty-five sorts of pagodas and fifteen of rupees in circulation in the Ceded Districts.¹⁰⁰

Buildings

North of the old fort at Visakhapatnam is the old cemetery, “often wrongly called ‘the Dutch Cemetery’”.¹⁰¹ It has burials from 1699 to 1823.¹⁰¹ Among them are four Chiefs of the settlement: Simon Holcombe (1705), Sandys Davis (1734), Charles Simpson (1741) and Alexander Davidson (1791).¹⁰¹

At Madapollam the gravestone of Katherine Davis still stood in Morris’s time.²⁶ She was the daughter of the Chief John Davis, and died in 1681 aged seventeen months.²⁶ A beam in a large house at Machilipatnam recorded that it “was built in 1790 by William Augustus Dobbyn, Second in Council of Masulipatam”.⁵²

The end of Company rule

With the renewal of its charter in 1833, the Company stopped trading.¹⁰² In the words of Maclean’s chronology, it became “solely governors of India and administrators of its revenue”.¹⁰² In 1858 the government of India was “transferred from the East India Company to the Crown” by Act of Parliament (2 August).¹⁰³¹⁰⁴ Maclean dates the Queen’s proclamation announcing it to 4 November.¹⁰³¹⁰⁴ Lord Harris, the Company’s last Governor of Madras, stayed on as the Queen’s.¹⁰³¹⁰⁴

The Crown’s government of the Madras Presidency is the subject of the next part of this history.⁸¹ So is the forming of the Krishna (then Kistna) and Godavari districts in 1859.⁸¹

Where the sources disagree

• The grant of Madras. The Fifth Report’s table dates the grant to 1 March 1639.¹² It names Sri Ranga Raya of Chandragiri as the grantor, with the Nayak Damarla Venkatadri obtaining it.¹² Foster, from the Company’s letters, dates Day’s landing to 27 July 1639, and the Nayak’s own grant to 22 August 1639.¹⁴¹⁵
• The first factory. The Fifth Report puts the first landing at Pettipolee (Nizampatnam) on 20 August 1611, and the first ship at Machilipatnam on 31 August 1611.¹ Morris says that “the first factory established by the English on the eastern coast of India was at Masulipatam”, in 1611.⁶
• Madapollam. Founded “about 1678” (Hemingway) or in December 1679 (Fifth Report).¹⁷¹⁶
• Visakhapatnam. 1682 (Francis, from the Madras consultations) or 1683 (Fifth Report, “supposed date”).²¹²³
• Injaram. Morris and Hemingway date the settlement to 1708.²⁷²⁹ Hemingway adds that it was abandoned and re-established in 1722.²⁹ The Fifth Report dates the factory to June 1722.³⁰
• The 1759 territory. Orme: 80 miles of coast by 20 inland, and 4,00,000 rupees.³⁷ The Kistna manual: sixty miles of coast and twenty inland.¹⁰⁵ The Fifth Report: about 700 square miles and 3,50,000 rupees.³⁸
• The payment of 1766. The treaty text in Aitchison gives nine lakhs of rupees a year, as do the Godavari and Visakhapatnam gazetteers.⁴³⁴⁶ The Kistna manual says eight lakhs.¹⁰⁶ The Imperial Gazetteer gives the cost of the promised troops as £90,000.¹⁰⁷
• The treaty of 1768. Dated 23 February 1768 in Aitchison and the Godavari gazetteer.⁴⁵⁴⁶ 26 February in the Fifth Report’s table.⁴⁷ 1 March 1768 in the Imperial Gazetteer.¹⁰⁸
• The commutation of 1823. Rs. 1,66,66,666 in Aitchison and Hemingway.⁴⁸⁴⁶ “116 2/3 lakhs” in the Imperial Gazetteer.¹⁰⁸
• The end of the factories. 1829 (Morris) or 1830 (Imperial Gazetteer).²⁷³⁴
• The Godavari anicut. “Completed in 1850” in the Imperial Gazetteer.³⁴ Morris quotes the government’s order of 1852 that it had “arrived at completion”.⁸⁷

Footnotes

1. “Acquisitions of Territory by the British in the Presidency of Fort St. George”, in W. K. Firminger (ed.), The Fifth Report from the Select Committee … on the Affairs of the East India Company, Vol. III (1918), p. x, Nos. II–IV (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹ ↩¹⁰ ↩¹¹ ↩¹² ↩¹³

2. Imperial Gazetteer of India: Madras, Vol. I (1908), p. 22 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸

3. Imperial Gazetteer: Madras, Vol. I (1908), p. 23 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸

4. “Acquisitions of Territory”, in Firminger, Fifth Report, Vol. III (1918), p. xi, Nos. IV–V (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹ ↩¹⁰ ↩¹¹ ↩¹² ↩¹³ ↩¹⁴ ↩¹⁵ ↩¹⁶ ↩¹⁷ ↩¹⁸

5. James Grant, “Political Survey of the Northern Circars” (1784), in Firminger, Fifth Report, Vol. III (1918), p. 13 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

6. Henry Morris, A Descriptive and Historical Account of the Godavery District (1878), p. 177 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

7. F. R. Hemingway, Madras District Gazetteers: Godavari, Vol. I (1907), p. 160 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹ ↩¹⁰

8. Gordon Mackenzie, A Manual of the Kistna District (1883), p. 358, “A List of Chiefs in Council, and Collectors of Masulipatam, Guntur and the Kistna District” (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

9. C. U. Aitchison, A Collection of Treaties, Engagements and Sanads, Vol. VIII (1892), p. 264 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

10. Morris, Godavery District (1878), p. 179 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

11. Morris, Godavery District (1878), p. 180 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

12. “Acquisitions of Territory”, in Firminger, Fifth Report, Vol. III (1918), p. xii, Nos. VI–VII (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹ ↩¹⁰ ↩¹¹

13. William Foster (ed.), The English Factories in India, 1637–1641 (1912), p. xxxvii (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

14. Foster, English Factories, 1637–1641 (1912), p. xxxviii (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷

15. Foster, English Factories, 1637–1641 (1912), p. xxxix (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷

16. “Acquisitions of Territory”, in Firminger, Fifth Report, Vol. III (1918), p. xiv, No. IX, Madapollam (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

17. Hemingway, Godavari (1907), p. 29 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

18. Morris, Godavery District (1878), p. 184 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

19. Morris, Godavery District (1878), p. 185 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

20. Morris, Godavery District (1878), p. 188 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

21. W. Francis, Madras District Gazetteers: Vizagapatam, Vol. I (1907), p. 35 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

22. Francis, Vizagapatam (1907), p. 36 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

23. “Acquisitions of Territory”, in Firminger, Fifth Report, Vol. III (1918), p. xv, No. XII, Vizagapatam (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

24. Mackenzie, Kistna District (1883), p. 39 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

25. Francis, Vizagapatam (1907), p. 37 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

26. Morris, Godavery District (1878), p. 192 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

27. Morris, Godavery District (1878), p. 193 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹ ↩¹⁰ ↩¹¹ ↩¹²

28. Hemingway, Godavari (1907), p. 212, s.v. Injaram (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

29. Hemingway, Godavari (1907), p. 213, s.v. Injaram and Nilapalli (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

30. “Acquisitions of Territory”, in Firminger, Fifth Report, Vol. III (1918), p. xix, No. XXI, Ingeram (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

31. “Acquisitions of Territory”, in Firminger, Fifth Report, Vol. III (1918), p. xxi, Bendamurlanka and Nilapalli (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

32. Robert Orme, A History of the Military Transactions of the British Nation in Indostan, Vol. II (Madras reprint, 1861), p. 261 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

33. Morris, Godavery District (1878), p. 194 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

34. Imperial Gazetteer: Madras, Vol. I (1908), p. 273, s.v. Godavari District (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

35. Hemingway, Godavari (1907), p. 167 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

36. Aitchison, Treaties, Vol. VIII (1892), p. 278, treaty with the Nizam, 1759 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

37. Orme, Military Transactions, Vol. II (1861), p. 493 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

38. “Acquisitions of Territory”, in Firminger, Fifth Report, Vol. III (1918), p. xxii, No. XXXI, districts ceded by the Nizam, 1759 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

39. Mackenzie, Kistna District (1883), p. 70 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

40. Aitchison, Treaties, Vol. VIII (1892), p. 279, the emperor’s farman for the Northern Circars, 12 August 1765 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

41. Mackenzie, Kistna District (1883), p. 73 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

42. Aitchison, Treaties, Vol. VIII (1892), p. 280, treaty with the Nizam, 12 November 1766, Articles 1–3 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

43. Aitchison, Treaties, Vol. VIII (1892), p. 281, Articles 3–5 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

44. Aitchison, Treaties, Vol. VIII (1892), p. 265 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷

45. Aitchison, Treaties, Vol. VIII (1892), p. 285, treaty of 23 February 1768 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

46. Hemingway, Godavari (1907), p. 34 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹ ↩¹⁰ ↩¹¹ ↩¹² ↩¹³ ↩¹⁴

47. “Acquisitions of Territory”, in Firminger, Fifth Report, Vol. III (1918), p. xxiv, No. XXXIV, the five Circars (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

48. Aitchison, Treaties, Vol. VIII (1892), p. 269 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

49. Hemingway, Godavari (1907), p. 161 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

50. Hemingway, Godavari (1907), p. 162 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

51. Hemingway, Godavari (1907), p. 163 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

52. Mackenzie, Kistna District (1883), p. 112 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

53. Mackenzie, Kistna District (1883), p. 82 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

54. Mackenzie, Kistna District (1883), p. 84 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

55. Mackenzie, Kistna District (1883), p. 85 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

56. Francis, Vizagapatam (1907), p. 46 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

57. Francis, Vizagapatam (1907), p. 47 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

58. Francis, Vizagapatam (1907), p. 50 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

59. Francis, Vizagapatam (1907), p. 51 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

60. Francis, Vizagapatam (1907), p. 52 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

61. Francis, Vizagapatam (1907), p. 53 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

62. Francis, Vizagapatam (1907), p. 54 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

63. Francis, Vizagapatam (1907), p. 55 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

64. Hemingway, Godavari (1907), p. 164 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

65. Hemingway, Godavari (1907), p. 165 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

66. Hemingway, Godavari (1907), p. 166 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

67. Harold A. Stuart, Madras District Manuals: North Arcot, Vol. I (1895), p. 95 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

68. Stuart, North Arcot (1895), p. 96 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

69. Stuart, North Arcot (1895), p. 97 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

70. Aitchison, Treaties, Vol. VIII (1892), p. 267 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

71. W. Francis, Madras District Gazetteers: Bellary (1904), p. 46 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

72. “Acquisitions of Territory”, in Firminger, Fifth Report, Vol. III (1918), p. xxviii, Nos. XLIII–XLIV (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

73. Francis, Bellary (1904), p. 47 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

74. G. R. Gleig, The Life of Major-General Sir Thomas Munro, Vol. I (1830), p. xix (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

75. John Bradshaw, Sir Thomas Munro and the British Settlement of the Madras Presidency (1894), p. 112 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

76. Francis, Bellary (1904), p. 48 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

77. Francis, Bellary (1904), p. 49 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

78. Francis, Bellary (1904), p. 155 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

79. Francis, Bellary (1904), p. 161 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

80. Stuart, North Arcot (1895), p. 98 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

81. Mackenzie, Kistna District (1883), p. 86 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

82. Mackenzie, Kistna District (1883), p. 253 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

83. Morris, Godavery District (1878), p. 116 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

84. Morris, Godavery District (1878), p. 118 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

85. Morris, Godavery District (1878), p. 126 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

86. Morris, Godavery District (1878), p. 109 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

87. Morris, Godavery District (1878), p. 138 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

88. Morris, Godavery District (1878), p. 139 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

89. Mackenzie, Kistna District (1883), p. 254 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

90. Mackenzie, Kistna District (1883), p. 256 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

91. Mackenzie, Kistna District (1883), p. 257 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

92. Mackenzie, Kistna District (1883), p. 109 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

93. Mackenzie, Kistna District (1883), p. 110 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

94. Hemingway, Godavari (1907), p. 214, s.v. Samalkot (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

95. Francis, Vizagapatam (1907), p. 42 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

96. Edgar Thurston, History of the Coinage of the Territories of the East India Company in the Indian Peninsula (1890), p. 37 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

97. Thurston, Coinage of the East India Company (1890), p. 38 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

98. Thurston, Coinage of the East India Company (1890), p. 46 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

99. Thurston, Coinage of the East India Company (1890), p. 47 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

100. Francis, Bellary (1904), p. 158 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

101. Francis, Vizagapatam (1907), p. 331 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

102. C. D. Maclean (ed.), Manual of the Administration of the Madras Presidency, Vol. II (1885), p. 264, chronological annals, 1833 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

103. Maclean, Manual of the Administration, Vol. II (1885), p. 266, chronological annals, 1858 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

104. C. D. Maclean (ed.), Manual of the Administration of the Madras Presidency, Vol. II (1885), pp. 268–270, list of Governors of Fort St. George (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

105. Mackenzie, Kistna District (1883), p. 69 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

106. Mackenzie, Kistna District (1883), p. 76 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

107. Imperial Gazetteer: Madras, Vol. I (1908), p. 185, s.v. Circars, Northern (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

108. Imperial Gazetteer: Madras, Vol. I (1908), p. 186 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²