Mysore under Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan

Mysore, the kingdom of the Wodeyar rajas, became for forty years one of the powers of the Telugu country.¹²³⁴ Its masters in those years were not the rajas, whom Haidar set aside.¹²³⁴ They were the soldier Haidar Ali, who took over its government in 1761, and his son Tipu Sultan.¹²³⁴ Tipu ruled from 1782 until he was killed at Srirangapatna (then Seringapatam) in 1799.¹²³⁴

From their capital on the Kaveri they pushed north and east, into the uplands that later formed the Anantapur, Bellary and Kadapa (then Cuddapah) districts.⁵⁶ They took the hill forts of the Maratha Morari Rao, the Pathan Nawabs of Cuddapah and the poligars (local chiefs).⁵⁶ This page follows them only as far as the Telugu country’s story needs them.⁵⁶ It covers:

• the conquests in Rayalaseema
• the wars with the Marathas, the Asaf Jahi Nizams and the East India Company, as they touched these districts
• the partitions of 1792 and 1799
• the cession of the Ceded Districts to the Company in 1800⁵⁶

The sources

The fullest history in English is Mark Wilks’s Historical Sketches of the South of India, in an Attempt to Trace the History of Mysoor (1810–17). Wilks often quotes what Haidar’s former associates told him.⁷ The Bellary gazetteer says that his book and Grant Duff’s history of the Marathas “are the basis of the greater part” of its account, down to the cession of 1800.⁸

Two Indian narratives exist in translation.⁹¹⁰ One is the Persian history of Haidar by Mir Husain Ali Khan Kirmani, translated by William Miles (1842).⁹ The other is the Marathi memoir of Ram Chandra Rao of Punganur, an officer of the Mysore treasury, translated by Charles Philip Brown (1849).¹⁰

William Kirkpatrick’s Select Letters of Tippoo Sultan (1811) translates letters found at Srirangapatna.¹¹ The official collection of treaties edited by C. U. Aitchison (fourth edition, 1909) prints the treaties of 1766–1800 and their schedules (lists of lands).¹²

For the districts themselves there are the manuals of Cuddapah (Gribble, 1875; Brackenbury, 1915), Kurnool (1886), Bellary (1904) and Anantapur (1905).¹³¹⁴¹⁵ They add local manuscripts and the reports of Thomas Munro, the first Collector of the Ceded Districts.¹³¹⁴¹⁵ J. R. Henderson’s catalogue of the Madras Museum’s coins of Haidar and Tipu (1921) describes their mints.¹⁶

Haidar’s rise

Lewin Bowring gives Haidar’s family tradition, which linked the family to the borders of the Telugu country.¹⁷¹⁸ His grandfather settled at Kolar.¹⁷¹⁸ His father, Fatah Muhammad, won promotion to the rank of Nayak from the Subahdar of Sira “at the siege of Ganjikota”, that is, Gandikota.¹⁷¹⁸

Haidar first distinguished himself as a volunteer at the siege of Devanhalli in 1749.¹⁹ Wilks writes that by about June 1761 the Raja of Mysore had been made to hand over to Haidar the management of the country.² From that moment, in Wilks’s words, “his usurpation was complete” (his seizure of power was complete).²

In the same year Basalat Jung sold Haidar the title of Nawab of Sira for three lakhs of rupees.²⁰²¹ Basalat Jung was the Nizam’s brother and the jagirdar (holder of a land grant) of Adoni.²⁰²¹ The title was “an office, a country, and a capital, which were yet to be conquered!”²⁰²¹ The two armies took Sira together, and Haidar kept it.²⁰²¹ See Gandikota.

First conquests: Penukonda and Madakasira, 1762

Haidar’s neighbour to the north-east was the Maratha Morari Rao of Gooty.⁵²¹ He held Penukonda and Madakasira, and took tribute from the poligars of the Anantapur country.⁵²¹

In 1762 Haidar beat him near Little Balapur.²² Haidar then “extended his conquest over a considerable sweep of country to the northward”.²² This included “Coodiconda, Penconda (the former capital of Carnatic), and Merg Sera”.²² Morari Rao withdrew to Gooty.²² The Anantapur gazetteer calls Penukonda and Madakasira Haidar’s first acquisitions in that district.⁵

Kirmani describes how Haidar took Penukonda in a month of assaults.⁹²³ At Madakasira the garrison’s fire killed many of his men.⁹²³ His gunners broke the rocks above the houses, so that the falling pieces drove the defenders to surrender.⁹²³

These gains were not all held.²⁴²⁵²⁶ The gazetteers say that Morari Rao recovered Madakasira two years later, and Kodikonda in 1766.²⁴²⁵²⁶ They say that Penukonda too was lost for a time.²⁴²⁵²⁶ See Penukonda and Madakasira.

Gurramkonda and Mir Sahib

The fortress of Gurramkonda lies above the Eastern Ghats, in the south of the Kadapa country.²⁷ It passed back and forth between Mysore and the Marathas through one man: Haidar’s brother-in-law Mir Ali Raza Khan, called Mir Sahib.²⁷ His grandfather had held it in jagir (as a land grant) under Golconda, before the Nawab of Cuddapah dispossessed the family.²⁷

In 1767 the Peshwa Madhavrao I invaded Mysore.²⁸²⁷ Mir Sahib, commanding at Sira, gave it up.²⁸²⁷ He “received in return, as a Mahratta dependency, the fort and district of Goorumconda”.²⁸²⁷ In 1768 Haidar marched on Gurramkonda and was reconciled with him.²⁹³⁰ The terms “were mutually and faithfully observed, during the remainder of their lives”.²⁹³⁰

In 1771 the Maratha general Trimbak Rao took Gurramkonda from Mir Sahib’s nephew after a siege of two months.³¹³²³³ The peace of June 1772 left it with the Marathas.³¹³²³³ After the Peshwa’s death Haidar sent Tipu north.³⁴ Between September 1773 and February 1774 Tipu “reduced Sera, Mudgery, Chenroydroog, Goorumconda, and their dependencies”.³⁴

Mir Sahib was made governor of Gurramkonda, and ruled the upland division of the Kadapa country from it.³⁵ See Balwant Rao Mendle and Punganur.

Haidar, the Nizam and the Company, 1766–1769

The First Mysore War drew in the Nizam.³⁶³⁷ It touched the Telugu districts through the treaties that ended it.³⁶³⁷ By the treaty of 1766 the Company received the Northern Circars.³⁶³⁷ Under it the English agreed to help Nizam Ali Khan with troops, and a corps joined him against Haidar’s fort of Bangalore.³⁶³⁷ But the Nizam deserted the English and invaded the Carnatic with Haidar, until the treaty of 1768 detached him again.³⁶³⁷

By that treaty, the official narrative says, the Nizam “revoked all sanads granted to Haidar Ali by the Subadars of the Deccan”.³⁶³⁸ He also agreed to cede to the English the diwani (revenue rights) of the Carnatic above the Ghats, “which had been seized by Haidar Ali”.³⁶³⁸

Wilks says that Haidar’s own treaty with the Nizam had secret articles.³⁹ These provided for the transfer to Haidar of “Kurpa, Kurnool, and other places between the Toombuddra and the northern limits of Mysoor”.³⁹ To give the claim substance, in 1769 he levied contributions on the Nawabs of Cuddapah and Kurnool, on the raja of Gadwal and on the poligars of Kotakonda and Kappatralla.³⁹ He visited Morari Rao at Gooty, and was beaten off from Bellary.³⁹ See Gadwal.

The Kurnool manual describes the same expedition from local tradition, but dates it about 1775.¹⁴ The Nawab, Munawwar Khan, prepared to resist under the protection of a holy man.¹⁴ Haidar refused to be overawed, and the Nawab paid two lakhs of the five demanded.¹⁴ The Imperial Gazetteer of Madras dates a march of Haidar on Kurnool to 1755.⁴⁰ See Kurnool.

Bellary and Gooty, 1775–1776

The poligar of Bellary had refused his tribute to Basalat Jung.⁴¹⁴² In November 1775 Basalat Jung’s minister and the French corps of M. Lally besieged him, and he appealed to Haidar.⁴¹⁴² Haidar marched from Srirangapatna in five days and fell on the besiegers’ rear.⁴¹⁴² Then he turned their batteries (guns) on the fort.⁴¹⁴²

In Wilks’s words, “Hyder’s garrison was introduced into the place on the 8th day after his march from Seringapatam”.⁴¹⁴² Basalat Jung paid a lakh of pagodas to save the rest of his jagir.⁴¹⁴²

The Bellary gazetteer says that “all the poligars of the district, including those of Rayadrug and Harpanahalli, were forced to acknowledge his supremacy”.⁴³⁴⁴ It says that he built the present upper and lower forts of Bellary.⁴³⁴⁴ See Bellary.

Haidar then demanded a contribution from Morari Rao.⁴⁵ Morari Rao replied that “he also was a Cena putti (General), and was in the habit of levying, not paying contributions”.⁴⁵

The siege of Gooty lasted about three months.⁴⁶⁴⁷⁴⁸ The town and lower forts were stormed after five weeks.⁴⁶⁴⁷⁴⁸ The citadel was crowded with followers, horses and cattle, and it ran short of water.⁴⁶⁴⁷⁴⁸ At Haidar’s table, Morari Rao’s hostage let slip that only thirst had forced the terms.⁴⁶⁴⁷⁴⁸

Haidar then broke off the treaty.⁴⁶⁴⁷⁴⁸ He waited until the garrison came down unarmed, “with Morari Row at their head”, early in April 1776.⁴⁶⁴⁷⁴⁸ Morari Rao was sent to the rock of Kabbaldurga, “where Morari Row soon afterwards died”.⁴⁹

In Wilks’s words, “all the possessions of the house of Gorepora, were transferred with no other ceremony than the substitution of the seal of Hyder”.⁴⁹ The Anantapur gazetteer dates the fall of Gooty to 1775.⁵⁶ It says that these victories “established Haidar as suzerain of the district”.⁵⁶

Morari Rao’s claims outlived him.³⁵⁰⁵¹ In 1782 the Company’s Resident at Tanjore agreed to help restore the old Mysore royal house.³⁵⁰⁵¹ The Company then reserved “the liberty of reinstating the family of Morarow in the country of Gooty”.³⁵⁰⁵¹ The Rani’s agent replied that “Gooty is not to be delivered to its former possessor”.³⁵⁰⁵¹ See Gooty fort.

After Gooty, Haidar called his tributaries for a campaign against the Marathas north of the Tungabhadra.⁵² Wilks lists those who came:⁵²

• the poligars of Chitaldurg and Harpanahalli
• the dalavayi (army chief) of Rayadurg
• the chiefs of Anegundi and Kanakagiri
• “Abd-ul-Hulleem Khan, Nabob of Kurpa”, with 2,000 horse⁵²

Haidar paid each horseman 16 rupees a month while he was out of his own country.⁵² In 1776 he faced an attack by the Marathas and the Nizam.⁵³ He made Gooty his depot, and the meeting place of these subsidiary troops.⁵³ The Nizam’s army advanced as far as Adoni and then withdrew.⁵³

Cuddapah, 1779

The Nawab of Cuddapah failed to send his contingent (troops).⁵⁴⁵⁵ Late in 1778 Haidar sent Mir Sahib against him.⁵⁴⁵⁵ A picked band of 2,000 Pathan horse under the Nawab’s nephew kept Mir Sahib at bay.⁵⁴⁵⁵

In 1779 Haidar came up by forced marches.⁵⁶ He surrounded the Pathan cavalry near Duvvur on the Kunderu and forced them to surrender.⁵⁶ Then he “took possession of the town of Kurpa without resistance”.⁵⁶

The Nawab, Abd-ul-Halim Khan, held out at Siddhavatam (then Sidhout) until 27 May.⁵⁷ Then he surrendered “on the simple assurance of personal security”.⁵⁷ His family was carried to Srirangapatna.⁵⁷ After a plot was discovered there, “all the male adults of the family” were secretly killed.⁵⁷

Haidar married the Nawab’s sister.⁵⁸⁵⁹ He gave Siddhavatam and the country with it to Mir Sahib, together with Gurramkonda, “as a military dependency”.⁵⁸⁵⁹ For it Mir Sahib was to keep 3,000 horse.⁵⁸⁵⁹

The Kurnool manual adds that Haidar sent troops to Koilkuntla and Cumbum to curb the poligars.⁶⁰ It says that the new jagirdar repaired the Cumbum tank.⁶⁰ See Kadapa and Siddhavatam.

Wilks observes that there were three Pathan Nawabs of the south.⁶¹ The troops and resources of two of them, Kadapa and Savanur, were now Haidar’s.⁶¹ But “the third of Kurnool continued to be a doubtful dependent on Nizam Ali”.⁶¹ At one time, he adds, the Nawab of Kurnool had to pay tribute to three powers at once: the Marathas, the Nizam and Mysore.⁶¹

Guntur and the invasion of 1780

The Second Mysore War grew in part out of the Telugu country.³⁸⁶² Basalat Jung held the Guntur Circar for life under the treaties of 1766 and 1768.³⁸⁶² In 1779, threatened by Haidar, he agreed to rent it to the Company.³⁸⁶² He also agreed to take a body of English troops for the defence of his country.³⁸⁶²

The Madras government sent a detachment under Colonel Harper to Adoni, by way of Kadapa and Kurnool.⁶³⁶⁴ It did not ask leave to cross Haidar’s territory.⁶³⁶⁴ The detachment was stopped by a barricade of felled trees “in a deep winding rugged vale”, and it retreated.⁶³⁶⁴ Meanwhile Haidar’s light troops laid waste the country of Adoni “up to the gates of the capital”.⁶³⁶⁴

The Madras government also now complained, for the first time, of Haidar’s conquest in 1776 of Morari Rao’s territory, and of his conquest of Kadapa.⁶⁵ The official narrative says that Haidar was “further irritated by the arrangements made with Basalat Jang respecting the Guntur Circar”.³⁷ In 1780 he burst into the Carnatic.³⁷ See Guntur.

The war was fought mainly in the Tamil country, but it reached the Telugu poligars of the north.⁶⁶⁶⁷ Wilks says that in 1781 the poligars of Kalahasti and Bomraj had joined Haidar out of “mere necessity, to save their countries from devastation”.⁶⁶⁶⁷ The spearmen of Venkatagiri served with the English.⁶⁶⁶⁷ After Haidar’s defeat at Sholingur in September 1781, the poligars of Kalahasti and Venkatagiri left his camp.⁶⁶⁶⁷

Mir Sahib died in 1781, and his son Qamar-ud-din succeeded to his command.⁶⁸⁶⁹ Haidar died on 7 December 1782.³ The treaty of Mangalore of 11 March 1784 ended the war, on the basis that each side gave back its conquests.³ See Srikalahasti.

Tipu Sultan and the Telugu districts, 1782–1789

In 1783 a son-in-law of the last Nawab of Cuddapah tried to recover the Nawabship.⁷⁰⁷¹⁶⁰ An English detachment that took Cumbum backed him.⁷⁰⁷¹⁶⁰ Qamar-ud-din Khan routed his troops, and cut an English battalion to pieces during a parley (talks).⁷⁰⁷¹⁶⁰ The Cumbum valley was afterwards exchanged with the English for Chetpet.⁷⁰⁷¹⁶⁰ In 1785 Tipu suspected Qamar-ud-din, and had him arrested and stripped of his jagirs.⁷²

Tipu gave Gooty the name Faiz Hisar, and Gurramkonda the name Zafarabad.^1173747576 His letters of 1785–86 speak of his postmaster at Faiz Hisar, his diwan (revenue officer) at Kadapa and his claims on the Nawab of Kurnool.^1173747576

In 1786 Tipu was at war with the Marathas and the Nizam.⁷⁷ He marched suddenly on Adoni, the Nizam’s fortress south of the Tungabhadra.⁷⁷ It was the home of the family of the late Basalat Jung.⁷⁷ Its commander, Mahabat Jung, repulsed his assault.⁷⁸ But the allies could not hold the place when the river rose, so they withdrew the garrison and the women.⁷⁹ Tipu found the fort empty.⁸⁰

Tipu expected to give Adoni back at the peace.⁸⁰ So he carried its guns and stores to Gooty and Bellary, and destroyed the fortifications.⁸⁰ It was restored to the Nizam in 1787.⁸¹

On the march Tipu camped at Lepakshi.²⁵ According to a local manuscript, he granted remissions (cuts in tax) there to resettle the depopulated village of Kodikonda.²⁵ On his way back he seized the poligars of Rayadurg and Harpanahalli in his camp, while his brigades took their forts.⁸²⁸³⁴³ See Lepakshi.

The war of 1790–92 and the treaty of Seringapatam

In 1790 the Company, the Nizam and the Peshwa allied against Tipu.⁸⁴ The treaty of 4 July 1790 provided that conquests should be divided equally.⁸⁴ It also provided that “certain palegars (polygars) and zamindars, who had formerly been dependent on the Nizam and the Peshwa, should be placed on their former footing”.⁸⁴

The Nizam’s army turned south-east “to regain Kurpa and its dependencies, lost in 1779”.⁸⁵ Gandikota surrendered, and the poligars submitted, though Wilks thought many submissions only nominal (in name only).⁸⁵

The Nizam’s troops sat down before Gurramkonda on 15 September 1791, and a British battery under Captain Andrew Read breached the lower fort.^8687888990 The lower fort was stormed and left to the Nizam’s officer Hafiz Farid-ud-din.^8687888990 Then Tipu’s son Fateh Haidar surprised and captured Hafiz.^8687888990 The Mysoreans relieved the upper fort before the Nizam’s army returned and resumed the blockade.^8687888990

Gribble says that the upper fort held out “until the treaty of 1792”.⁹⁰ By that treaty, he says, “Tippoo ceded Gurramkonda, together with the whole of his Cuddapah possessions, to the Nizam”.⁹⁰

By the treaty of 18 March 1792 Tipu gave up half of his dominions.⁴ He paid three crores and thirty lakhs of rupees, and the territory was divided equally among the three allies.⁴

The schedule of the Nizam’s share opens with “Talook Kurpah, 61 Talooks”.¹² It includes Banganapalle and “In Gooty 4 Talooks”, namely “Tarputry”, “Tannorry”, “Velanoor” and “Singemmully”.¹² The Anantapur gazetteer identifies these Anantapur lands as the taluks of Tadpatri and Tadimarri.⁶ Part of the Bellary district also went to the Nizam.⁹¹

Gooty, Penukonda, Madakasira and Anantapur stayed with Tipu.⁶⁹² Henderson notes that from this time Tipu’s coins were struck only at Srirangapatna, Nagar and Gooty, and that the Gurramkonda mint ceased.⁹³ See Tadpatri.

The Nizam did not hold his new districts firmly.⁹⁴⁹⁵ In 1793 he asked the Company to support him in a dispute with Tipu over the tribute of Kurnool.⁹⁴ In 1795 Tipu gathered troops at Gooty “on the pretence of demanding tribute from Kurnool”.⁹⁵ He was ready to help the Nizam’s rebellious son Ali Jah.⁹⁵

The Marathas defeated the Nizam at Kharda in 1795.⁹⁶⁹⁰⁹⁷ After that he assigned the revenues of Kadapa to his French commander Raymond.⁹⁶⁹⁰⁹⁷ He withdrew the grant only when the Governor-General threatened to send troops into the province.⁹⁶⁹⁰⁹⁷ See Kharda.

1799 and the partition of Mysore

The Fourth Mysore War ended on 4 May 1799 “by the fall of Seringapatam and the death of Tipu, who fell bravely defending the fort”.⁴ The partition treaty of 22 June 1799 made these arrangements:⁴⁹⁸

• The old Hindu house was restored to a smaller Mysore under a child raja.⁴⁹⁸
• The Company kept the districts on the coast and next to its own territories.⁴⁹⁸
• The Nizam received “the districts of Garamkonda, Guti, and others contiguous to Hyderabad, affording a revenue of 6,07,332 pagodas”.⁴⁹⁸

The schedule of the Nizam’s share begins with Gooty: “Fyse Hussur Kubal”, the town and fort of Faiz Hisar.⁹⁹ It lists Penukonda, Madakasira (“Murrugseera”) and Hande Anantapur.⁹⁹ It adds “Of Gurrumconda, all the districts not ceded in 1792”, Rayadurg and the “Kurnool Peshcush” (tribute) of 66,666 pagodas.⁹⁹

The Nizam was to give Qamar-ud-din a personal jagir in the Gurramkonda districts worth 70,000 pagodas.¹⁰⁰ The Peshwa refused the share offered to him.¹⁰¹⁹¹ It was later divided between the Company and the Nizam, and the Nizam received Harpanahalli.¹⁰¹⁹¹

The change of masters was not peaceful everywhere.⁹² At Gooty a Brahmin convert named Zeruwar Khan imprisoned Tipu’s killadar (fort commander), and offered the fort to the Marathas.⁹² Colonel Bowser came to take it over for the Nizam.⁹² The garrison then put Zeruwar Khan in irons and surrendered on 3 August 1799.⁹²

At Anantapur the son of the old poligar had escaped from Srirangapatna.¹⁰² He took the town after Tipu’s death, and then submitted.¹⁰²

The Ceded Districts, 1800

The Company feared the Marathas.¹⁰¹ So it strengthened its alliance with the Nizam by the treaty of 12 October 1800, which enlarged the subsidiary force at Hyderabad.¹⁰¹ To pay for this force, the Nizam ceded to the Company “all the territories acquired by His Highness, under the Treaty of Seringapatam”.¹⁰³ He also ceded “all the territories acquired by His Highness under the Treaty of Mysore”.¹⁰³ To make the Tungabhadra a clean frontier, he exchanged his districts north of the river for Adoni.¹⁰³ The schedule annexed to the treaty totals 21,09,968 pagodas.¹⁰⁴

In 1905 the Anantapur gazetteer wrote: “The districts which were thus handed over (Anantapur, Bellary, Cuddapah and part of Kurnool) are still known as the Ceded districts”.⁶ Thomas Munro was “their first (and their most famous) ‘Principal Collector’”.⁶

The Nawab of Kurnool denied that any right of tribute had passed by the partition treaty.¹⁰⁵ He agreed to pay a voluntary peshkash (tribute) of a lakh of rupees.¹⁰⁵ See Kurnool.

Government, revenue and forts

Haidar governed through aumils.^106107108 These were managers of revenue who contracted for a district at a fixed sum.^106107108 Wilks says that his demand on tributaries was “far from being the nominal acknowledgment of dependency, tolerated under weaker governments”.^106107108

For example, the tribute of Anegundi was raised from 7,000 to 12,000 pagodas, besides its contingent of troops.^106107108 Whatever an aumil was found to have levied in secret was added to the established revenue.^106107108 In 1776 the whole country paid a forced contribution “under the name of free gift”.^106107108

The Anantapur gazetteer quotes Munro’s figures.¹⁵¹⁰⁹ They put Haidar’s assessment of the Ceded Districts at 19,77,776 Kanthiraya pagodas.¹⁵¹⁰⁹ “The revenue continued to increase from 1779 to 1788”, reaching an assessment of 22,77,999 pagodas in 1788.¹⁵¹⁰⁹ Between 1788 and 1799 the collections fell from 19,81,758 to 15,02,608 pagodas.¹⁵¹⁰⁹ The fall was greatest in the districts ceded to the Nizam in 1792.¹⁵¹⁰⁹

Munro reckoned that the districts could bring in a little over twenty lakhs of pagodas a year.¹¹⁰ This was about the value that the 1792 schedules had put on them.¹¹⁰

The poligars were the great problem of every government in these districts.³⁵ In a letter of 1802, quoted by the Cuddapah gazetteer, Munro wrote about Haidar.³⁵ He said that “Haidar Ali was the only Indian sovereign we know of who ever subdued all his petty feudatories”.³⁵ Haidar alone, he wrote, “was really master of his country”.³⁵

Haidar kept runaway poligars out by posting detachments in their country.^111112113 He kept those he caught about his court, “holding, indeed, nominal sway over their villages”.^111112113 But they were “burdened with a peshkash so heavy that it left them no margin from which to maintain an armed force”.^111112113 The Matla raja of Chitvel was carried off in 1780.^111112113

“Tipu’s weaker rule gave the poligars their opportunity and they returned to all their old power”.¹¹²¹¹³ After 1792 the Nizam’s officers let them recover the rest.¹¹²¹¹³

In the Anantapur country, the poligar of Anantapur fell into arrears under Haidar’s raised tribute.¹⁰²¹¹⁴ His sons were drafted into Haidar’s army.¹⁰²¹¹⁴ Under Tipu the men of the family at Anantapur were hanged.¹⁰²¹¹⁴ So were the poligar of Udiripikonda and his brother.¹⁰²¹¹⁴

Forts were the frame of this government.⁴⁴⁴⁶³⁵ Haidar rebuilt Bellary.⁴⁴ Wilks calls Gooty’s rock “a citadel which famine or treachery can alone reduce”.⁴⁶ Under Mir Sahib, Gurramkonda held the upland Kadapa country.³⁵

Wilks says that every fortified place the English saw in Mysore in 1791 showed “the extraordinary attention paid by Tippoo Sultaun” to its repair and improvement.¹¹⁵ Tipu also forbade the sale of arrack and toddy in the Anantapur country.¹¹⁶ He and Haidar endowed the darga (shrine) of Babayya at Penukonda.¹¹⁷

Coins

Henderson’s catalogue (1921) is the main source for the coins struck in the Telugu districts.^118119120 Haidar began to coin only after taking Bednur in 1763.^118119120 None of his coins “exhibits more than the initial letter of his name”.^118119120

At Gooty Haidar struck a gold “new Muhammad Shahi” pagoda.^118119120 It was “simply a copy of an earlier Mughal pagoda of the same mint” that Morari Rao had reissued.^118119120 Henderson also lists two rough copper paisas of Bellary as doubtful coins of Haidar.^118119120

Tipu struck coins at twelve mints.¹⁶¹²¹ Among them were “(3) Faiz Hisar (Gooty)” and “(10) Zafarabad (Gurramkonda)”.¹⁶¹²¹ The Gooty series of copper paisas, half-paisas and quarter-paisas runs through the last years of his reign.¹⁶¹²¹ It has many blunders, which Henderson put down to “the Telugu or other South Indian workmen who constructed the dies”.¹⁶¹²¹ The plates of his catalogue illustrate them.¹²² See the gallery on this page.

Where the sources disagree

• The fall of Gooty. Wilks dates the surrender to early April 1776, and notes that “Gooty was not taken till 1776”.⁴⁸¹²³ The Anantapur gazetteer and Henderson give 1775.⁵¹²¹ Henderson speaks of a siege of nine months, against Wilks’s account of about three months.¹²¹⁴⁸
• Gurramkonda. The Cuddapah gazetteer says Haidar obtained Gurramkonda in 1766.¹²⁴ Wilks says Mir Sahib received it from the Marathas in 1767, and returned to Haidar in 1768.²⁸²⁹ Henderson says Haidar took it in 1768 “from the Nawabs of Cuddapah”.⁷³
• The conquest of Kadapa. Wilks dates the Nawab’s surrender at Siddhavatam to 27 May 1779, and names him Abd-ul-Halim Khan.⁵⁷ Gribble and the Cuddapah gazetteer put Haidar’s march in the year after 1779, that is 1780.¹²⁵¹²⁴ The gazetteer calls the Nawab Abdul-alam Khan.¹²⁴ The local chronology printed by Gribble dates the fall of Sidhout to 1778.¹²⁶
• Haidar and Kurnool. Wilks puts Haidar’s first levy on Kurnool in 1769.³⁹ The Kurnool manual puts it about 1775, and the Imperial Gazetteer in 1755.¹⁴⁴⁰
• The Kurnool tribute after 1792. Kirkpatrick wrote that the treaty of 1792 released the Nawab of Kurnool from dependence on Tipu, and transferred his tribute to the Nizam.¹²⁷ The partition treaty of 1799 lists the Kurnool peshkash among the Nizam’s gains of that year.⁹⁹ Wilks records the two rulers disputing it in 1793.⁹⁴
• Bellary. Wilks places Haidar’s first repulse from Bellary in 1769.³⁹ The Bellary gazetteer places it in 1768.¹²⁸
• Mir Sahib. Wilks calls him Haidar’s brother-in-law.²⁷ The Kurnool manual calls the holder of the Kadapa jagir, Saiyid Ali Raza, Haidar’s father-in-law.⁶⁰
• Adoni in 1786. The Bellary gazetteer, in its summary, says Tipu “attacked Adoni and at length captured it”.⁴³ Wilks and the gazetteer’s account of the town say the garrison abandoned it, and that it was restored to the Nizam at the peace.^80129130

Footnotes

1. Aitchison, Treaties, Vol. IX (1909), p. 179 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

2. Mark Wilks, Historical Sketches of the South of India, Vol. I (1810), p. 433 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

3. Aitchison, Treaties, Vol. IX (1909), p. 181 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹ ↩¹⁰

4. Aitchison, Treaties, Vol. IX (1909), p. 182 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹ ↩¹⁰ ↩¹¹

5. W. Francis, Madras District Gazetteers: Anantapur (1905), p. 22 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹ ↩¹⁰

6. Francis, Anantapur Gazetteer (1905), p. 23 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹ ↩¹⁰

7. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. II (1817), p. 157, note (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

8. W. Francis, Madras District Gazetteers: Bellary (1904), p. 44, note 4 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

9. Mir Husain Ali Khan Kirmani, The History of Hydur Naik, tr. W. Miles (1842), p. 122 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

10. Ram Chandra Rao Punganuri, Memoirs of Hyder and Tippoo, tr. C. P. Brown (1849), p. 3 and translator’s note 1 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

11. William Kirkpatrick (tr.), Select Letters of Tippoo Sultan (1811), preface, p. xxx (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

12. Aitchison, Treaties, Vol. IX (1909), p. 214, treaty of Seringapatam, districts ceded to the Nizam (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

13. Gribble, Cuddapah (1875), p. 95 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

14. Narahari Gopalakristnamah Chetty, A Manual of the Kurnool District (1886), p. 35 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

15. Francis, Anantapur Gazetteer (1905), p. 103, quoting Munro (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷

16. Henderson, Coins of Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan (1921), p. 8 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

17. Lewin B. Bowring, Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan (Rulers of India, 1893), p. 12 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

18. Bowring, Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan (1893), p. 13 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

19. Bowring, Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan (1893), p. 18 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

20. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. I (1810), p. 438 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

21. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. I (1810), p. 441 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

22. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. I (1810), p. 446 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

23. Kirmani, History of Hydur Naik, tr. Miles (1842), p. 123 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

24. Imperial Gazetteer: Madras, Vol. I (1908), p. 492 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

25. Francis, Anantapur Gazetteer (1905), p. 172 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

26. Francis, Anantapur Gazetteer (1905), p. 192 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

27. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. II (1817), p. 11 and note (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷

28. Mark Wilks, Historical Sketches of the South of India, Vol. II (1817), p. 10 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

29. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. II (1817), p. 80 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

30. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. II (1817), p. 81 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

31. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. II (1817), p. 137 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

32. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. II (1817), p. 138 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

33. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. II (1817), p. 151 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

34. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. II (1817), p. 159 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

35. C. F. Brackenbury, Madras District Gazetteers: Cuddapah, Vol. I (1915), p. 40, quoting Munro’s letter of 20 March 1802 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷

36. C. U. Aitchison, A Collection of Treaties, Engagements and Sanads, Vol. IX (4th ed., 1909), p. 2 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷

37. Aitchison, Treaties, Vol. IX (1909), p. 180 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷

38. Aitchison, Treaties, Vol. IX (1909), p. 3 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

39. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. II (1817), p. 131 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

40. Imperial Gazetteer of India, Provincial Series: Madras, Vol. I (1908), p. 406 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

41. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. II (1817), p. 165 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

42. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. II (1817), p. 166 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

43. Francis, Madras District Gazetteers: Bellary (1904), p. 45 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

44. Francis, Bellary (1904), p. 218 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

45. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. II (1817), p. 167 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

46. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. II (1817), p. 168 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸

47. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. II (1817), p. 169 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

48. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. II (1817), p. 170 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸

49. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. II (1817), p. 171 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

50. Aitchison, Treaties, Vol. IX (1909), p. 205, articles with the Rani of Mysore, 1782 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

51. Aitchison, Treaties, Vol. IX (1909), p. 206 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

52. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. II (1817), p. 173 and note (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

53. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. II (1817), p. 180 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

54. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. II (1817), p. 187 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

55. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. II (1817), p. 190 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

56. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. II (1817), p. 191 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

57. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. II (1817), p. 195 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

58. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. II (1817), p. 197 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

59. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. II (1817), p. 198 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

60. Chetty, Kurnool District (1886), p. 36 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷

61. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. II (1817), p. 207 and note (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

62. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. II (1817), p. 234 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

63. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. II (1817), p. 236 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

64. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. II (1817), p. 237 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

65. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. II (1817), p. 242 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

66. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. II (1817), p. 332 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

67. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. II (1817), p. 339 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

68. Gribble, Cuddapah (1875), p. 98 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

69. Gribble, Cuddapah (1875), p. 100 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

70. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. II (1817), p. 465 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

71. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. II (1817), p. 466 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

72. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. II (1817), p. 540 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

73. Henderson, Coins of Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan (1921), p. 110 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

74. Kirkpatrick, Select Letters of Tippoo Sultan (1811), p. 135 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

75. Kirkpatrick, Select Letters of Tippoo Sultan (1811), p. 226 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

76. Kirkpatrick, Select Letters of Tippoo Sultan (1811), p. 227 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

77. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. II (1817), p. 546 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

78. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. II (1817), p. 547 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

79. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. II (1817), p. 548 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

80. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. II (1817), p. 549 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

81. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. II (1817), p. 559 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

82. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. II (1817), p. 560 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

83. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. II (1817), p. 561 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

84. Aitchison, Treaties, Vol. IX (1909), p. 4 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

85. Mark Wilks, Historical Sketches of the South of India, Vol. III (1817), p. 175 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

86. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. III (1817), p. 205 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

87. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. III (1817), p. 206 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

88. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. III (1817), p. 208 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

89. Gribble, Cuddapah (1875), p. 101 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

90. Gribble, Cuddapah (1875), p. 102 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹

91. Francis, Bellary (1904), p. 46 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

92. Francis, Anantapur Gazetteer (1905), p. 160 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

93. Henderson, Coins of Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan (1921), p. 9 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

94. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. III (1817), p. 315 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

95. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. III (1817), p. 324 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

96. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. III (1817), p. 321 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

97. Gribble, Cuddapah (1875), p. 103 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

98. Aitchison, Treaties, Vol. IX (1909), p. 183 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

99. Aitchison, Treaties, Vol. IX (1909), p. 63, partition treaty of Mysore, Schedule B (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

100. Aitchison, Treaties, Vol. IX (1909), p. 58, partition treaty of Mysore, Article 2 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

101. Aitchison, Treaties, Vol. IX (1909), p. 5 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

102. Francis, Anantapur Gazetteer (1905), p. 146 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

103. Aitchison, Treaties, Vol. IX (1909), p. 69, treaty of 12 October 1800, Articles 5–6 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

104. Aitchison, Treaties, Vol. IX (1909), p. 76, schedule to the treaty of 1800 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

105. Chetty, Kurnool District (1886), p. 37 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

106. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. II (1817), p. 174 and note (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

107. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. II (1817), p. 175 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

108. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. II (1817), p. 176 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

109. Francis, Anantapur Gazetteer (1905), p. 104, quoting Munro (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

110. Francis, Anantapur Gazetteer (1905), p. 105 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

111. Francis, Bellary (1904), p. 47 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

112. Francis, Bellary (1904), p. 48 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

113. Brackenbury, Cuddapah (1915), p. 45, quoting Munro (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

114. Francis, Anantapur Gazetteer (1905), p. 166 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

115. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. III (1817), p. 189 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

116. Francis, Anantapur Gazetteer (1905), p. 129 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

117. Francis, Anantapur Gazetteer (1905), p. 193 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

118. J. R. Henderson, The Coins of Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan (Madras Government Museum, 1921), p. 1 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

119. Henderson, Coins of Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan (1921), p. 2 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

120. Henderson, Coins of Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan (1921), p. 77 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

121. Henderson, Coins of Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan (1921), p. 76 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

122. Henderson, Coins of Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan (1921), p. 4, Haidar’s pagodas Nos. 1–4, and plates I, VI and IX (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

123. Wilks, Historical Sketches, Vol. II (1817), p. 248, note (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

124. Brackenbury, Cuddapah (1915), p. 44 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

125. Gribble, Cuddapah (1875), p. 97 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

126. J. D. B. Gribble, A Manual of the District of Cuddapah (1875), p. 51 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

127. Kirkpatrick, Select Letters of Tippoo Sultan (1811), p. 136, observations on Letter CII (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

128. Francis, Bellary (1904), p. 217 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

129. Francis, Bellary (1904), p. 197 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

130. Francis, Bellary (1904), p. 198 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩