Bahmanis

The Bahmanis were the first independent Muslim kings of the Deccan. Their kingdom began in 1347 with a revolt of the Delhi sultan’s officers in the Deccan, and lasted until 1527.¹² They ruled first from Gulbarga and, from the 1420s, from Bidar, both now in Karnataka.¹²

For the Telugu country they matter in four ways.³⁴ The founder won his throne with help from the ruler of Warangal.³⁴ His successors took the western half of Telangana, then Golconda and Warangal, from the Telugu chiefs who had succeeded the Kakatiyas.³⁴ In the 1470s they carried their rule to the coast at Rajahmundry, Kondapalli and Kondavidu.³⁴

When the kingdom fell apart, its governor of Telangana, Sultan Quli, founded the Qutb Shahi kingdom of Golconda.³⁴ This page tells the Bahmani side of their dealings with their Telugu neighbours: the Musunuri Nayakas, the Recherla Velamas of Rachakonda and Devarakonda, the Reddis of Kondavidu and Rajahmundry, Vijayanagara and the Gajapatis of Orissa.

The sources

The fullest history is that of Muhammad Qasim Ferishta.⁵ Jonathan Scott wrote that Ferishta was “high in office at the court of Ibrahim Adil Shaw, of Beejapore”.⁵ Scott translated the Deccan part of the history in 1794.⁵ John Briggs translated the whole in 1829, under a title that carries it to 1612.⁶ Ferishta used older chronicles that are now lost.⁷ Among them was the Tuhfat-us-Salatin of Mulla Daud of Bidar, who said he had been page and seal-bearer to Muhammad Shah I.⁷

The second main history is the Burhan-i Ma’asir of Ali ibn Aziz-ullah Tabataba.⁸⁹ It was written about 1591 for the Nizam Shahi kings of Ahmadnagar, whose founder’s father was a Bahmani minister.⁸⁹ J. S. King translated its Bahmani part in 1900.⁸⁹ He noted that it was “essentially a history of the Nizam Shahi dynasty”, which explains its flattering words for that family.⁸⁹ King added passages from a third history, the Tazkirat-ul-Muluk, which he thought “not of much historical value”.¹⁰

The two main histories often disagree, and on the Telugu country more than anywhere.¹¹¹² Ferishta gives long accounts of wars with Warangal that the Burhan-i Ma’asir passes over in a sentence.¹¹¹² The two also name different places and enemies in the coastal wars of the 1470s.¹¹¹²

T. W. Haig compared the two in 1904, and wrote the Bahmani chapters of the Cambridge History of India in 1928.¹¹¹² He generally preferred the Burhan-i Ma’asir on the family of the kings, and checked both against the coins and inscriptions.¹¹¹² This page gives each side with its source. The Telugu side of the same events comes from the inscriptions and family chronicles used on the pages of the Musunuri, Recherla and Reddi families. Those pages show how far the Telugu records support the Persian histories.

Telugu help and the founding of the kingdom

In the 1340s Muhammad bin Tughluq’s officers in the Deccan rose against him. They first chose an Afghan, Ismail Mukh, as king. Ferishta says that their leader Zafar Khan, the future Bahman Shah, dared not attack the Sultan’s general Imad-ul-Mulk near Bidar at first.¹³¹⁴ He waited until he was joined by “fifteen thousand infantry, sent by the Raja of Tulingana”.¹³¹⁴ After the victory, Ferishta says, Ismail stood down in his favour.¹³¹⁴

The Kistna District Manual names the Warangal ruler as Virabhadraya, a son of Prataparudra.¹⁵ Haig names him as Kanhayya Naik of eastern Telingana, “who claimed to represent the Kakatiya dynasty”.² Haig says Kanhayya readily helped the rebels against the king of Delhi, but would not accept Bahman Shah as his master.² On him, see Kapaya Nayaka and the Musunuri Nayakas.

The Burhan-i Ma’asir does not mention the Telugu troops at Bidar.¹⁶¹⁷ It records instead that soon after the accession Bahman Shah’s general Sikandar Khan wrote to “Kanabayand, who was wali of Telingana”, asking for elephants.¹⁶¹⁷ Kanabayand sent a written promise of submission and met Sikandar Khan with rich offerings.¹⁶¹⁷ He sent two elephants and other presents to the king.¹⁶¹⁷

King noted that his manuscripts spell the name in several ways.¹⁶ Haig, telling the same episode, calls him Kanhayya.¹² Haig adds that Sikandar Khan “compelled Kanhayya Naik of Warangal to cede the fortress of Kaulas and to pay tribute for the territory which he was permitted to retain”.¹²

The Burhan-i Ma’asir dates the accession to Friday 28 Sha’ban AH 748 (AH is the Islamic way of counting years).¹⁸ King converts this to 3 December 1347, “or—according to one writer—on the 24th Rabi’ II” (3 August 1347).¹⁸ Ferishta gives 24 Rabi-ul-Akhir 748.¹⁴ The Hyderabad archaeologist Syed Ali Asgar Bilgrami wrote in 1927 that Hasan was crowned in the mosque of Qutbuddin Mubarak at Daulatabad.¹⁹

The king made Gulbarga his capital and renamed it Ahsanabad.²⁰²¹ This is the name that appears as the mint on his successors’ silver coins.²⁰²¹

The name Bahmani

Ferishta tells how Hasan had once worked for a Brahman of Delhi named Gangu, who foretold his rise.²²²³ He says the title Bahmani was a compliment to this master, Gangu “the bramin, a word often pronounced bahmun”.²²²³

Haig rejected the story in 1904.²⁴²⁵²⁶ He pointed to a broken inscription of AH 754 (1353) outside a gate of Gulbarga fort, cut during the founder’s lifetime.²⁴²⁵²⁶ It calls the king “‘Ala’u-‘d-dunya wa’d-din Bahman Shah”.²⁴²⁵²⁶ Haig argued that the name was the old Persian Bahman, after the hero from whom the king claimed descent.²⁴²⁵²⁶ In his view the dynasty’s name had “no connection with the caste-name ‘Brahman’”.²⁴²⁵²⁶

G. Yazdani, in charge of the Nizam’s Archaeological Department, disagreed in its report for 1919–20.²⁷ He thought that Persian historians agreed on the story of Gangu.²⁷ In his view the courtiers had chosen Bahman because the Persian king’s name matched the Persianised form of “Brahman”, and so honoured both.²⁷

Western Telangana and the frontier at Kaulas and Bhongir

Ferishta says the first king “wrested Kowlas, also, with its dependencies, from the Raja of Wurungole, with whom he formed a treaty of alliance”.²⁸²⁹ Later the raja stopped his tribute.²⁸²⁹ He was treated gently because of his help in the revolt, and agreed to pay what he had once paid to Delhi.²⁸²⁹ See Kaulas.

Late in his reign, the Burhan-i Ma’asir says, the king spent nearly a year in Telingana and took the district of Bhonagir.³⁰ There he overthrew temples and built mosques and schools.³⁰ By then, it says, his kingdom reached “from the east side of Daulatabad to Bhonagir and the river Godavari”.³⁰ Haig calls Bhongir “the frontier post of the Bahmani kingdom”.³¹ He thought that it was later allowed to pass back to the Hindus, perhaps in exchange for Kaulas.³¹

The founder divided his kingdom into four provinces, each called a taraf, under a governor (tarafdar).³²³³ Ferishta gives “Bidur, Indour, Kowlas, and the districts in Tulingana” to Azim-i-Humayun, son of the minister Saif-ud-din Ghori.³²³³

Haig calls this province “Bidar, or Muhammadan Telingana”.³⁴ He lists in it Bidar, Kandhar, Indur (Nizamabad), Kaulas, Kotagir and Medak.³⁴ It also took in as much of Telingana as the Bahmanis held, “extending eastward, at the end of Bahman’s reign, as far as Bhongir”.³⁴ Haig notes that its eastern border moved with the fortunes of war.³⁴ In his earlier book he had put the border on a line running north and south a little east of Indur.³¹

Muhammad Shah I: the war with Warangal and the turquoise throne

Under Muhammad Shah I (1358–1375) the alliance ended. Ferishta says the Hindu bankers melted down the new Bahmani coins “at the instigation of the Rajas of Beejanuggur and Tulingana”.³⁵ He says the king put many of them to death.³⁵

The rajas then demanded the lands taken by his father.³⁶ The Raja of Telingana sent his son Vinaik Dew to recover Kaulas.³⁶ The Bahmani general Bahadur Khan defeated him, and forced the raja to pay a large sum and twenty-five elephants.³⁶ Haig calls the prince Venayek Deva, and says Kanhayya had demanded “the retrocession of Kaulas” (its return).³⁷

The next episode is told very differently. In Ferishta’s account, Vinaik Dew seized horses meant for the king at a town called Velumputtun.³⁸³⁹⁴⁰ The king rode there with four thousand horse in a week and took the town.³⁸³⁹⁴⁰ He had the prince’s tongue cut out and his body thrown from a catapult into a fire.³⁸³⁹⁴⁰ On the way back the Telugu forces harassed his army badly.³⁸³⁹⁴⁰ Of four thousand men, Ferishta says, only fifteen hundred returned.³⁸³⁹⁴⁰

Briggs could not identify Velumputtun, and wondered whether Bellamkonda was meant.³⁸ Haig calls it Vailampallam, Venayek Deva’s fief “on the sea coast”.³⁷ The Burhan-i Ma’asir has only a raid on “Fllampatan (?)”, which it places after a war with Vijayanagara.⁴¹ It says nothing about a Telugu prince.⁴¹

A last campaign followed. Ferishta says the king sent the troops of Bidar against Golconda and those of Berar against Warangal.^42434415 He stayed nearly two years in Telingana.^42434415 The raja retired to the woods.^42434415 At last he bought peace with three hundred elephants, two hundred horses and thirty-three lakhs of rupees.^42434415 He also gave up “in perpetuity the hill-fort of Golconda, with its dependencies”.^42434415

A treaty fixed Golconda as the boundary.^42434415 The raja’s envoys presented a jewelled throne first made for Muhammad bin Tughluq.^42434415 At Gulbarga it was named the Takht-i-Feroza.^42434415 Briggs renders the name the “cerulean throne”, and the Kistna Manual the Azure Throne.^42434415 Haig calls it the “turquoise throne”, and dates the king’s first sitting on it to 21 March 1365.⁴⁵ See Golconda and Golconda Fort.

The dates do not agree. Briggs’s Ferishta dates the horse affair to the end of AH 773 (1371), which would put it after the cession of Golconda.³⁶ Haig dates it to 1362.³⁷ Bilgrami dates the cession of Golconda to 1362.⁴⁶ The Imperial Gazetteer gives a war with Warangal in 1371.⁴⁷ The Burhan-i Ma’asir says only that “in the latter days of his reign” the king conquered Telingana.⁴⁸

Who ruled Telangana in these wars is also disputed.³⁷⁴⁵ Haig names the raja as Kanhayya throughout.³⁷⁴⁵ The page on the Recherla Velamas sets out the case for the Recherla chief Anapota. V. Yashoda Devi writes that he overthrew Kapaya about 1368.⁴⁹

Firuz Shah and the defeat at Pangal

Firuz Shah (1397–1422) fought mostly against Vijayanagara. Ferishta credits him with twenty-four campaigns.⁵⁰ He says Firuz “subjected the greater part of Tulingana to the yoke of Islam”.⁵⁰

The Burhan-i Ma’asir says that he marched into Telingana as far as the neighbourhood of Rajahmundry.⁵¹ He took many forts and put the whole territory in the hands of his officers.⁵¹ So “from Telingana to Rajamundri … the whole country was conquered by his army”.⁵¹ Ferishta’s account of the Telugu country under Firuz is narrower.⁵² In AH 820 (1417), he says, the king sent to the Ray of Telingana for several years’ arrears of tribute.⁵² The Ray paid them, with presents besides.⁵²

The same year Firuz besieged Pangal.⁵³⁵⁴ Haig places this fortress about twenty-five miles north of the meeting of the Krishna and the Tungabhadra.⁵³⁵⁴ He says it had been part of the district of Golconda ceded under Muhammad I.⁵³⁵⁴

The siege dragged on for two years until disease broke out in the camp.⁵²⁵⁵⁵⁶ The king of Vijayanagara then marched to its relief with help from the surrounding princes, “including the Raja of Tulingana”.⁵²⁵⁵⁵⁶ Firuz gave battle against advice.⁵²⁵⁵⁵⁶ His general Mir Fazlullah was killed by one of his own men, and the Bahmani army fled.⁵²⁵⁵⁵⁶ The victors chased it into the kingdom and laid the country waste.⁵²⁵⁵⁵⁶

The Imperial Gazetteer calls the relieving force “the Rajas of Vijayanagar and Warangal and other chiefs”.⁴⁷ The Burhan-i Ma’asir puts the defeat down to a night attack by the garrison.⁵¹⁵⁷ It says the people of the time blamed the saint Gisu Daraz, with whom Firuz had quarrelled.⁵¹⁵⁷

Ahmad Shah I and the fall of Warangal

Ahmad Shah I (1422–1435) took the throne from his brother. Ferishta says that when he marched against Vijayanagara its king called in the Ray of Warangal.⁵⁸⁵⁹ The Ray joined him and then withdrew his troops before the battle.⁵⁸⁵⁹

To punish the Ray for this, Ahmad marched into Telingana in AH 828 “with the intention of conquering” it.⁶⁰ He halted at Golconda and sent his general Khan Azim ahead.⁶⁰ Khan Azim defeated the Telugu army, killed seven thousand men and took Warangal, “the Ray having been slain in the action”.⁶⁰

The king came to Warangal and took “those treasures, the accumulation of ages”.⁶⁰ Khan Azim conquered the rest of Telingana in four months.⁶⁰ He was left to take the last forts held by the dead Ray’s heirs.⁶⁰

Haig dates the capture to the end of 1424.⁶¹ He says Ahmad, “having extended his eastern frontier to the sea”, left Abd-ul-Latif, governor of Bidar, to finish the work.⁶¹ Other works give these dates:^47624615

• 1422 (the Imperial Gazetteer)⁴⁷
• 1424 (Gribble and Bilgrami)⁶²⁴⁶
• AH 828, 1425 (the Kistna Manual, which corrects Elphinstone’s 1421)¹⁵

The Burhan-i Ma’asir tells it more briefly. Ahmad “penetrated to the farthest limits of Tilang” and took the forts of Mandal and Warangal.⁶³ Also “the Rayas of Devarkonda and Rajkonda” sent envoys with presents and agreed to pay tribute.⁶³ On these rayas, see the Recherla Velamas, Devarakonda and Rachakonda. Neither history names the ruler of Warangal who was killed.⁶⁰⁶³ Gribble writes that from this time Warangal was never again a royal city.⁶²

The conquest did not hold. The Burhan-i Ma’asir says that while Ahmad was at war with Gujarat and Malwa “the infidels … had succeeded in getting possession of various districts of Telingana”.⁶⁴⁶⁵ He marched back and took many forts, “the strongest of which was the fort of Ramgir”.⁶⁴⁶⁵ The ruler of Warangal fort sent envoys and agreed to pay tribute.⁶⁴⁶⁵ Ahmad then made Ibrahim Sanjar Khan commander of the army in Telingana, with the fort of Bhonagir as his estate.⁶⁴⁶⁵

Haig says Telingana, “though nominally under the government of one of his sons, was in a condition approaching rebellion”.⁶⁶ He says Ahmad put some of its chiefs to death.⁶⁶ Ferishta names that son as Daud Khan, sent “with a number of the nobility to establish himself in Tulingana”.⁶⁷ The Burhan-i Ma’asir gives Daud Khan Raichur instead.⁶⁸

Rebels, Devarakonda and the Gajapatis, 1435–1463

Under Ala-ud-din Ahmad Shah II (1435–1458) the province of Telingana was held by Khan Azim.⁶⁹⁷⁰ When he died, the king was thought to be dying too.⁶⁹⁷⁰ The officers of the province then accepted the authority of Sikandar Khan.⁶⁹⁷⁰ He was the son of a Sayyid named Jalal Khan, and a grandson through his mother of Ahmad Shah I.⁶⁹⁷⁰

Father and son were besieged in their fort.⁷¹⁷⁰⁷² Briggs’s Ferishta calls the fort Nowlgoond, and Haig and the Burhan-i Ma’asir call it Balkonda.⁷¹⁷⁰⁷² They surrendered to Mahmud Gawan and were pardoned.⁷¹⁷⁰⁷²

Under Humayun Shah Sikandar rebelled again, because he had not been given the government of Telingana.⁷³⁷⁴⁷⁵ Haig says he demanded “the cession of the eastern half of the kingdom” as Ahmad Shah’s daughter’s son.⁷³ The Burhan-i Ma’asir says he was advancing on Golconda.⁷⁴⁷⁵ He was killed in battle in 1458.⁷³⁷⁴⁷⁵

The Telugu chiefs had backed Sikandar. Humayun then turned on Devarakonda, which Ferishta says belonged to “a zemindar of Tulingana”.^767775787379 The king camped at Warangal and sent Khwaja Jahan Turk and Nizam-ul-Mulk Ghori against the fort.^767775787379 The garrison bought the help of the Ray of Orissa, whose army arrived as the defenders came out to fight.^767775787379 The Bahmani force was routed and chased, Ferishta says, for eighty miles.⁷⁶⁷⁷ Humayun executed Nizam-ul-Mulk on Khwaja Jahan’s false report.^767775787379

The Imperial Gazetteer says Humayun marched “to Nalgonda to quell a rebellion which had broken out in his Telingana provinces”.⁸⁰ News of a revolt at Bidar called him back, and he left Mahmud Gawan to hold Telingana.⁸¹ In February 1460 the Gajapati princes Hamvira and Raghudeva took Warangal. See the Gajapatis and the Warangal inscription of 1460.

Humayun died in 1461, leaving a boy king, Nizam Shah.⁸²⁸³ Then “the rays of Orissa, in conjunction with the zemindars of Tulingana, invaded the kingdom by the route of Rajmundry”.⁸²⁸³ Ferishta says they came within ten miles of Bidar and demanded the return of Telingana.⁸²⁸³ A night attack by a small band of Bahmani cavalry put them to flight.⁸²⁸³

The Burhan-i Ma’asir puts the battle ten farsakhs, some thirty-four miles, from Bidar.⁸⁴ Haig puts it within twenty miles.⁸⁵ The page on Kapilendra Gajapati tells the Orissan side.

The coast: Rajahmundry, Kondapalli and Kondavidu

Under Muhammad Shah III (1463–1482) the Bahmanis reached the eastern sea. About 1471, a disputed succession in Orissa gave them their chance. Ferishta says a cousin of the late king, Ambur Ray, asked for help against a usurper (one who had seized the throne).⁸⁶⁸⁷

Muhammad Shah “had a great desire to possess the territory of Oorea, including Rajmundry and Condapilly”.⁸⁶⁸⁷ So he sent Malik Hasan Bahri with the title Nizam-ul-Mulk.⁸⁶⁸⁷ Malik Hasan restored the claimant, took Kondapalli and Rajahmundry, and was made governor of all Telingana.⁸⁶⁸⁷

Haig calls the claimant Hambar, and names the second fort as Kondavir, Kondavidu.⁸⁸³ The Burhan-i Ma’asir says simply that the king of Orissa had died, and that Malik Hasan took “Rajamundari” and “Kondavir”.⁸ The Godavari District Gazetteer says instead that the Gajapati king Purushottama asked for help against a rival and paid for it with the two districts.⁸⁹ Haig adds that the Hindu ruler of Rajahmundry had kept his independence until then.⁸⁸ On the Orissan side, see Hamvira and Purushottama.

A famine followed.⁹⁰ Ferishta says that no grain was sown in Telingana or Maharashtra for two years.⁹⁰

Then the three histories part ways.⁹⁰⁹¹⁹² In Ferishta’s account the garrison of Kondapalli murdered its governor and gave the fort to a Hindu, Bhimraj.⁹⁰⁹³ Bhimraj called in the Ray of Orissa.⁹⁰⁹³ The Ray besieged Malik Hasan in Rajahmundry until Muhammad Shah marched in person.⁹⁰⁹³ Haig places the rising at Kondavir, given to Hambar, who called in the raja of Jajpur in Orissa.⁹¹

The Burhan-i Ma’asir says the Raya of Orissa invaded, and Malik Hasan fell back.⁹²⁹⁴ When the king reached Rajahmundry he found a Raya called Narsinha with a great army dug in beyond the river.⁹²⁹⁴ Narsinha fled, and the fort then surrendered.⁹²⁹⁴

All agree that the king followed the enemy into Orissa.^9395919294 Ferishta and Haig date this to AH 882, February 1478.⁹³⁹⁵⁹¹ They say he came back only after the raja gave up twenty-five of his best elephants.⁹³⁹⁵⁹¹

On his return the king besieged Kondapalli in Ferishta’s account, or Kondavidu in Haig’s.⁹⁵⁹⁶⁹⁷ When it surrendered he destroyed its temple and built a mosque on the site.⁹⁵⁹⁶⁹⁷ He killed some of its Brahman priests with his own hand and took the title Ghazi (holy warrior).⁹⁵⁹⁶⁹⁷ Ferishta says the people of the Deccan held this, the first killing of a Brahman by a king of the line, to be the cause of the dynasty’s troubles.⁹⁵⁹⁶

The Burhan-i Ma’asir has no temple and no Brahmans.⁹⁸⁹⁹ It dates the rising at Kondavir to AH 885 (1480).⁹⁸⁹⁹ It says the people of the fort surrendered and were pardoned.⁹⁸⁹⁹ They had complained that the king’s ministers had set “disreputable, tyrannical oppressors” over them.⁹⁸⁹⁹ See Kondapalli and Kondapalli Fort, and Kondaveedu and Kondaveedu Fort.

The king stayed nearly three years at Rajahmundry, drove out the zamindars (local landholders) and set up military posts.^96100101102 Then he marched south against Narsing Ray.^96100101102 Ferishta calls him “a powerful raja possessing the country lying between the Carnatic and Tulingana”.^96100101102

The king made Kondapalli his base and rode with a picked band to Kanchipuram, where he sacked the temple.^96100101102 He also took Machilipatnam (then Masulipatam).^96100101102 The Burhan-i Ma’asir dates the sack of Kanchi to 12 March 1481.¹⁰³

Mahmud Gawan’s reforms and the eight tarafs

The kingdom had now outgrown the four provinces of the founder. On the advice of the minister Mahmud Gawan, Telingana was split first. Ferishta says that “Rajmundry, Muchly-puttun, Bilconda, Oorea, &c.” stayed under Malik Hasan, while Warangal went to Azim Khan.¹⁰⁴ Haig calls these the eastern or Rajamundry division and the western division, with Warangal as its capital.⁹⁷ He says Azim Khan was a son of the rebel Sikandar.⁹⁷

The other three provinces were divided in the same way, making eight in all.^105104106 The plan was completed at Kondapalli.^105104106 Each governor now kept only one fortress in his own hands.^105104106 The king took back the others, and many sub-districts, as crown land.^105104106 The pay of troops was raised but tied to strict musters (roll-calls).^105104106

Stanley Lane-Poole lists the new provinces as “Bijapur and Ahsanabad, Daulatabad and Junair, Rajamundri and Warangol, Gawel and Mahur”.¹⁰⁷

Malik Hasan had hoped to keep the whole of Telingana, and he resented the division.⁹⁷¹⁰⁸ With other leaders of the Deccani party he had a letter forged above Mahmud Gawan’s seal.⁹⁷¹⁰⁸ It was shown to the king when he was drunk, and the minister was executed on 5 April 1481.⁹⁷¹⁰⁸

Ferishta and Haig say the letter invited the Raja of Orissa to invade.¹⁰⁹¹⁰⁸ Ferishta has the forgers write that “on the Rajmundry frontier, there is no officer of any character”.¹⁰⁹ The Burhan-i Ma’asir addresses the letter to Narsinha Raya.⁹⁹¹¹⁰ It adds that the complaints of the people of Kondavir had already turned the king against his minister.⁹⁹¹¹⁰

Ferishta places these events after the king’s return to Kondapalli.¹⁰² The Burhan-i Ma’asir has the king’s camp in Narsinha’s country when the minister was killed.⁹⁹¹⁰³

Telangana under the later Bahmanis

After the murder Malik Hasan became lieutenant of the kingdom as Malik Naib.¹¹¹ Haig says two Turkish nobles who had joined his party, both called Qivam-ul-Mulk, were given Warangal and Rajahmundry.¹¹¹ Ferishta describes the share-out of offices when Mahmud Shah came to the throne in 1482.¹¹² He gives Warangal to the younger Qivam-ul-Mulk and Rajahmundry to an Abyssinian, Dilawar Khan.¹¹²

In AH 891 (1486) Adil Khan Deccani, deputy at Warangal, died, and the younger Qivam-ul-Mulk seized the province.^{113114115116117} Malik Naib took the young king Mahmud Shah to Warangal, where the nobles turned against the minister.^{113114115116117} He fled to Bidar and was strangled there by the commander of the citadel.^{113114115116117} Ferishta says the king appointed Qutb-ul-Mulk, whom Haig calls “the Deccani”, governor of Telingana.¹¹⁵¹¹⁸

The king’s own power faded, but Telangana stayed his. Ferishta says that apart from “the province of Tulingana, and the districts adjacent to Ahmudabad Bidur, no parts of the kingdom in reality remained in the King’s possession”.¹¹⁹ The Burhan-i Ma’asir says Mahmud gave the fort of Medak, “situate in the country of Telingana on a piece of solid rock”, to the husband of his sister Fatimah as a wedding gift.¹²⁰

In 1484 a Bahmani governor, Malik An-Ni’mat, son of Mubarak, built a mosque at Rachakonda.¹²¹ Yazdani thought the building had been a Hindu temple.¹²¹ See the Rachakonda mosque inscription.

The last governor was Sultan Quli. The Deccani Qutb-ul-Mulk was killed at the siege of Jamkhandi in 1493.¹¹⁸¹²² His title then passed to Sultan Quli, “a Turk of Hamadan, who held fiefs in Telingana”.¹¹⁸¹²² Ferishta says Sultan Quli was made tarafdar (governor) of Telingana in AH 901 (1495–96), with Golconda and Warangal added to his estate.¹²³

The Burhan-i Ma’asir says he was first given Kotagir and another town.^124125126 In AH 903 (1497) he gained “suzerainty over all the feudatory chiefs of Telingana”.^124125126 He added Warangal and “Kovilakonda” to his lands, and later settled at Golconda.^124125126

An inscription at Warangal records that a chief called Shitab Khan took the fort on 21 January 1504.^127128129130 Hirananda Sastri, who edited it, says he took it “from the Musalmans”.^127128129 Sastri identified him with an officer of Humayun Shah.^127128129130 The Burhan-i Ma’asir says this officer had fled for his life about 1461.¹³⁰

When Sultan Quli became independent is disputed. Gribble gives 1510.¹³¹ Haig gives 1512, noting that his epitaph shows he never used the royal title.¹³²⁴ Bilgrami argued for 1518 from the inscription over the Jami Masjid that Sultan Quli built in Golconda fort.¹³³⁴⁶ It is dated AH 924, and still names “Mahmood Shah son of Muhammad Shah Bahmani” as king.¹³³⁴⁶ See the Golconda Jami Masjid inscription and the Qutb Shahis.

The end of the kingdom

From about 1490 the governors of Ahmadnagar, Bijapur and Berar ruled as kings in all but name.¹³²¹³⁴ The Barid ministers held Mahmud Shah and his sons in Bidar.¹³²¹³⁴ Mahmud died on 7 December 1518.^13513680 Amir Ali Barid raised three of his sons to the throne in turn.^13513680 The last king, Kalim-ullah, fled from Bidar in 1527 and died soon after at Ahmadnagar.^13513680

Five kingdoms took the Bahmani lands:¹³⁴⁴

• the Adil Shahis of Bijapur
• the Nizam Shahis of Ahmadnagar
• the Imad Shahis of Berar
• the Barid Shahis of Bidar
• the Qutb Shahis of Golconda, who took Telingana¹³⁴⁴

In Lane-Poole’s words, “from the breaking up of the Bahmani kingdom rose the five dynasties of the Dekhan”.¹⁰⁷

Coins

Ferishta describes Bahmani coins as “of a square form”.³⁵¹⁵ He says they had the Muslim creed and the names of the first four caliphs on one side, and the king’s title and the year on the other.³⁵¹⁵ The Kistna Manual repeats this.¹⁵

The coin catalogues disagree.²¹¹³⁷ Lane-Poole wrote in 1885 that “all the Bahmani coins are round”.²¹ In H. Nelson Wright’s catalogue of 1907 the gold and silver pieces carry their legends “in square” on a round flan (blank).¹³⁷

The mints named on them are Ahsanabad (Gulbarga) and, from Ahmad Shah I, Muhammadabad (Bidar).^13813921 The copper is mostly without a mint.^13813921 No source read for this page attributes a Bahmani coin to a mint in the Telugu country. Haig noted that Bahman Shah called himself “the Second Alexander” on his coins.³⁴ He also noted that the copper coins disproved Ferishta’s name for the fifth king.¹⁴⁰

Buildings in the Telugu country

Few buildings in the Telugu districts are dated to the Bahmani period by a source. The Golconda Jami Masjid is dated to 1518 by its inscription.¹³³ The Rachakonda mosque is dated by its inscription of 1484.¹²¹

At Bhongir the Archaeological Department, in its report for 1925–26, described a first gateway “of Muslim style”.¹⁴¹¹⁴² Beside it were walls of the Muslim period next to older Hindu masonry.¹⁴¹¹⁴² The report did not date them more closely.¹⁴¹¹⁴²

Yazdani found that the dome of Humayun Shah’s tomb at Bidar used light bricks of the kind used in Kakatiya temple towers at Ramappa.¹⁴³ He thought that the masons who built the Bahmani tombs were mostly Hindus.¹⁴³

Where the sources disagree

• Telugu help at the founding. Ferishta has fifteen thousand infantry from the Raja of Telingana.¹³ The Burhan-i Ma’asir has two elephants and a promise of submission from “Kanabayand”.¹⁶ Haig has the cession of Kaulas forced by Sikandar Khan.¹²
• The name. Ferishta and Yazdani take it from a Brahman master, Gangu.²³²⁷ The inscription of 1353 and Haig take it from the Persian hero Bahman.²⁴²⁶
• Muhammad Shah I’s wars. Ferishta has a long war with Warangal, the Velumputtun raid and the cession of Golconda.⁴² The Burhan-i Ma’asir has a raid on “Fllampatan” after a war with Vijayanagara, and a late conquest of Telingana in one sentence.⁴¹⁴⁸ Golconda was ceded in 1362 (Bilgrami) or by 1365 (Haig’s date for the throne).⁴⁶⁴⁵
• Warangal. It was taken in 1422, 1424 or 1425.⁴⁷⁶¹¹⁵ Ferishta has its raja killed.⁶⁰ The Burhan-i Ma’asir has its forts taken and the rayas of Devarakonda and Rachakonda made to pay tribute.⁶³
• Sikandar Khan’s fort. Briggs’s Ferishta calls it Nowlgoond, and Haig and the Burhan-i Ma’asir call it Balkonda.⁷¹⁷⁰ The Burhan-i Ma’asir says that in 1458 he marched on Golconda.⁷⁴
• The coast, 1471–1481. Ferishta has Kondapalli, and Haig and the Burhan-i Ma’asir have Kondavidu.⁹⁰⁹¹⁹² Ferishta and Haig make the enemy the Raja of Orissa, and the Burhan-i Ma’asir makes him Narsinha Raya.⁹⁰⁹¹⁹² Ferishta and Haig have the king destroy a temple and kill Brahmans, but the Burhan-i Ma’asir has him pardon oppressed subjects.⁹⁵⁹⁸ Ferishta and Haig have the forged letter addressed to Orissa, and the Burhan-i Ma’asir to Narsinha.¹⁰⁹¹¹⁰
• Telingana after 1481. Haig gives Warangal and Rajahmundry to the two Qivam-ul-Mulks after the minister’s murder.¹¹¹ Ferishta gives Warangal to the younger Qivam-ul-Mulk and Rajahmundry to Dilawar Khan at Mahmud Shah’s accession.¹¹²
• Sultan Quli’s independence. The dates given are 1510, 1512 and 1518.^1314133
• Coins. Ferishta says square.³⁵ Lane-Poole and Wright say round, with square legends.²¹¹³⁷

Footnotes

1. Imperial Gazetteer of India: Hyderabad State (1909), p. 11 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

2. Wolseley Haig (ed.), The Cambridge History of India, Vol. III (1928), p. 372 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

3. Haig, Cambridge History of India, Vol. III (1928), p. 416 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

4. Haig, Cambridge History of India, Vol. III (1928), p. 430 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹

5. Jonathan Scott (tr.), Ferishta’s History of Dekkan, Vol. I (1794), preface (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

6. Muhammad Qasim Ferishta, tr. John Briggs, History of the Rise of the Mahomedan Power in India, Vol. II (1829), p. 283 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

7. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. II (1829), p. 308 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

8. King, History of the Bahmani Dynasty (1900), p. 104 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

9. King, History of the Bahmani Dynasty (1900), p. 118 and note 44 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

10. King, History of the Bahmani Dynasty (1900), p. 23 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

11. Haig, “Some Notes on the Bahmani Dynasty” (1904), p. 8 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

12. Haig, Cambridge History of India, Vol. III (1928), p. 373 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸

13. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. II (1829), p. 289 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

14. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. II (1829), p. 290 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

15. Gordon Mackenzie, A Manual of the Kistna District (1883), p. 16 and notes (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹ ↩¹⁰ ↩¹¹ ↩¹² ↩¹³ ↩¹⁴ ↩¹⁵ ↩¹⁶

16. King, History of the Bahmani Dynasty (1900), p. 9 and notes 15–17 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

17. King, History of the Bahmani Dynasty (1900), p. 10 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

18. J. S. King, The History of the Bahmani Dynasty, founded on the Burhan-i Ma’asir (1900), p. 5 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

19. Bilgrami, Landmarks of the Deccan (1927), p. 191 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

20. King, History of the Bahmani Dynasty (1900), p. 20 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

21. Lane-Poole, Coins of the Muhammadan States (1885), p. lxv (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷

22. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. II (1829), pp. 284–285 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

23. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. II (1829), p. 297 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

24. T. W. Haig, “Inscriptions in Gulbarga”, Epigraphia Indo-Moslemica 1907–08 (1909), p. 1 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

25. T. W. Haig, “Some Notes on the Bahmani Dynasty”, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal LXXIII, Part I, extra number (1904), p. 2 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

26. Haig, “Some Notes on the Bahmani Dynasty” (1904), p. 4 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

27. Annual Report of the Archaeological Department of H.E.H. the Nizam’s Dominions, 1919–20 (1922), p. 2, note (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

28. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. II (1829), p. 293 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

29. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. II (1829), p. 294 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

30. King, History of the Bahmani Dynasty (1900), p. 21 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

31. T. W. Haig, Historic Landmarks of the Deccan (1907), p. 73 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

32. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. II (1829), p. 295 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

33. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. II (1829), p. 296 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

34. Haig, Cambridge History of India, Vol. III (1928), p. 375 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

35. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. II (1829), p. 300 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

36. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. II (1829), p. 301 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

37. Haig, Cambridge History of India, Vol. III (1928), p. 379 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

38. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. II (1829), p. 302 and note (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

39. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. II (1829), p. 303 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

40. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. II (1829), p. 304 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

41. King, History of the Bahmani Dynasty (1900), p. 27 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

42. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. II (1829), p. 305 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹ ↩¹⁰

43. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. II (1829), p. 306 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹

44. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. II (1829), p. 307 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹

45. Haig, Cambridge History of India, Vol. III (1928), p. 380 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

46. Bilgrami, Landmarks of the Deccan (1927), p. 192 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

47. Imperial Gazetteer: Hyderabad (1909), p. 12 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

48. King, History of the Bahmani Dynasty (1900), p. 28 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

49. Yashoda Devi, After the Kakatiyas (1975), p. 65. Cite-only; paraphrased. ↩

50. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. II (1829), p. 364 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

51. King, History of the Bahmani Dynasty (1900), p. 40 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

52. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. II (1829), p. 389 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸

53. Haig, Cambridge History of India, Vol. III (1928), p. 393 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

54. Haig, Cambridge History of India, Vol. III (1928), p. 394 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

55. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. II (1829), p. 390 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

56. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. II (1829), p. 391 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

57. King, History of the Bahmani Dynasty (1900), p. 41 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

58. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. II (1829), p. 400 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

59. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. II (1829), p. 401 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

60. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. II (1829), p. 406 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸

61. Haig, Cambridge History of India, Vol. III (1928), p. 399 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

62. J. D. B. Gribble, A History of the Deccan, Vol. I (1896), p. 86 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

63. King, History of the Bahmani Dynasty (1900), p. 52 and note 65 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

64. King, History of the Bahmani Dynasty (1900), p. 61 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

65. King, History of the Bahmani Dynasty (1900), p. 62 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

66. Haig, Cambridge History of India, Vol. III (1928), p. 402 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

67. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. II (1829), p. 412 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

68. King, History of the Bahmani Dynasty (1900), p. 63 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

69. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. II (1829), p. 447 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

70. Haig, Cambridge History of India, Vol. III (1928), p. 409 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸

71. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. II (1829), p. 448 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

72. King, History of the Bahmani Dynasty (1900), p. 78 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

73. Haig, Cambridge History of India, Vol. III (1928), p. 410 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷

74. King, History of the Bahmani Dynasty (1900), p. 82 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

75. King, History of the Bahmani Dynasty (1900), p. 83 and note 1 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷

76. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. II (1829), p. 456 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

77. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. II (1829), p. 457 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

78. King, History of the Bahmani Dynasty (1900), p. 84 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

79. Haig, Cambridge History of India, Vol. III (1928), p. 411 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

80. Imperial Gazetteer: Hyderabad (1909), p. 13 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

81. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. II (1829), p. 458 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

82. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. II (1829), p. 466 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

83. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. II (1829), p. 467 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

84. King, History of the Bahmani Dynasty (1900), p. 90 and note 11 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

85. Haig, Cambridge History of India, Vol. III (1928), p. 412 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

86. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. II (1829), p. 487 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

87. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. II (1829), p. 488 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

88. Haig, Cambridge History of India, Vol. III (1928), p. 415 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

89. F. R. Hemingway, Madras District Gazetteers: Godavari, Vol. I (1907), p. 26 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

90. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. II (1829), p. 494 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸

91. Haig, Cambridge History of India, Vol. III (1928), p. 417 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷

92. King, History of the Bahmani Dynasty (1900), p. 108 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷

93. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. II (1829), p. 495 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

94. King, History of the Bahmani Dynasty (1900), p. 109 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

95. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. II (1829), p. 496 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸

96. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. II (1829), p. 497 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸ ↩⁹

97. Haig, Cambridge History of India, Vol. III (1928), p. 418 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷ ↩⁸

98. King, History of the Bahmani Dynasty (1900), p. 110 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

99. King, History of the Bahmani Dynasty (1900), p. 111 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶ ↩⁷

100. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. II (1829), p. 498 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

101. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. II (1829), p. 500 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

102. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. II (1829), p. 501 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

103. King, History of the Bahmani Dynasty (1900), p. 112 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

104. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. II (1829), p. 503 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

105. Haig, Cambridge History of India, Vol. III (1928), p. 419 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

106. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. II (1829), p. 504 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

107. Stanley Lane-Poole, The Coins of the Muhammadan States of India in the British Museum (1885), p. lxiv (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

108. Haig, Cambridge History of India, Vol. III (1928), p. 420 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

109. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. II (1829), p. 506 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

110. King, History of the Bahmani Dynasty (1900), p. 113 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

111. Haig, Cambridge History of India, Vol. III (1928), p. 421 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

112. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. II (1829), p. 524 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

113. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. II (1829), p. 529 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

114. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. II (1829), p. 530 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

115. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. II (1829), pp. 531–532 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

116. Haig, Cambridge History of India, Vol. III (1928), p. 424 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

117. King, History of the Bahmani Dynasty (1900), p. 119 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

118. Haig, Cambridge History of India, Vol. III (1928), p. 427 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

119. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. II (1829), p. 535 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

120. King, History of the Bahmani Dynasty (1900), p. 120 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

121. Annual Report of the Archaeological Department of His Highness the Nizam’s Dominions, 1915–16 (1917), p. 4 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

122. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. II (1829), p. 540 and note (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

123. Ferishta, tr. Briggs, Vol. II (1829), p. 544 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

124. King, History of the Bahmani Dynasty (1900), p. 130 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

125. King, History of the Bahmani Dynasty (1900), p. 135 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

126. King, History of the Bahmani Dynasty (1900), p. 137 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

127. Sastri, Shitab Khan of Warangal (1932), p. 13 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

128. Sastri, Shitab Khan of Warangal (1932), p. 15 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

129. Hirananda Sastri, Shitab Khan of Warangal (1932), p. 3 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

130. King, History of the Bahmani Dynasty (1900), p. 88 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

131. Gribble, History of the Deccan (1896), p. 129 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

132. Haig, Cambridge History of India, Vol. III (1928), p. 425 and note (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

133. Syed Ali Asgar Bilgrami, Landmarks of the Deccan (1927), p. 111 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

134. Haig, Cambridge History of India, Vol. III (1928), p. 426 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

135. Haig, Cambridge History of India, Vol. III (1928), p. 431 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

136. Haig, Cambridge History of India, Vol. III (1928), p. 432 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

137. Wright, Coins in the Indian Museum, Vol. II (1907), p. 199 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

138. H. Nelson Wright, Catalogue of the Coins in the Indian Museum, Calcutta, Vol. II (1907), p. 197 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

139. O. Codrington, “On the Coins of the Bahmani Dynasty”, Numismatic Chronicle, 3rd series, XVIII (1898), p. 267 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²

140. Haig, “Some Notes on the Bahmani Dynasty” (1904), p. 7 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩

141. Annual Report of the Archaeological Department of H.E.H. the Nizam’s Dominions, 1925–26 (1928), p. 9 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

142. Annual Report … 1925–26 (1928), p. 10 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩² ↩³

143. G. Yazdani, Bidar: Its History and Monuments (1947), p. 133 and note 4 (archive.org↗ (opens in a new tab)). ↩ ↩²